Orrstown Financial Services Inc: Form 10-K for the period ended Dec 31, 2023

Background

Orrstown Financial Services, Inc., a Pennsylvania corporation, is the financial holding company ("FHC") for its wholly-owned subsidiary Orrstown Bank. The Company’s principal executive offices are located at 77 East King Street, Shippensburg, Pennsylvania, with additional executive and administrative offices at 4750 Lindle Road, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. The Parent Company was organized on November 17, 1987 for the purpose of acquiring the Bank and such other banks and bank-related activities as are permitted by law. The Company provides banking and financial advisory services located in south central Pennsylvania, principally in Berks, Cumberland, Dauphin, Franklin, Lancaster, Perry and York Counties, Pennsylvania, and in Anne Arundel, Baltimore, Howard and Washington Counties, Maryland, as well as Baltimore City, Maryland. The Company’s lending area also includes adjacent counties in Pennsylvania and Maryland, as well as Loudon County, Virginia and Berkeley, Jefferson and Morgan Counties, West Virginia.

Pending Merger

On December 12, 2023, the Company and Codorus Valley Bancorp, Inc. ("Codorus Valley" or “CVLY”) entered into a definitive agreement to affect a “merger of equals” transaction pursuant to which CVLY will be merged with and into the Company, with the Company as the surviving corporation (the "Merger"). Promptly following the Merger, CVLY’s wholly-owned bank subsidiary, PeoplesBank, A Codorus Valley Company, will be merged with and into the Bank, with the Bank as the surviving bank.

Under the terms of the agreement, CVLY shareholders will have the right to receive 0.875 shares of the Company’s common stock and cash in lieu of any fractional shares of the Company’s common stock. Upon closing, shareholders of the Company, prior to the closing of the Merger, will own approximately 56% of the combined company and shareholders of CVLY will own approximately 44% of the combined company. The transaction is subject to regulatory approvals and satisfaction of customary closing conditions, including approval from Orrstown and CVLY shareholders. The transaction is expected to close in the third quarter of 2024. As of December 31, 2023, CVLY had $2.2 billion in assets and operated 22 full-service branches and eight limited purpose branches in Pennsylvania and Maryland.

Business

The Bank was organized in 1919 as a state-chartered bank. On March 8, 1988, in a bank holding company reorganization transaction, the Parent Company acquired 100% ownership of the Bank.

The Parent Company’s primary activity consists of owning and supervising its subsidiary, the Bank. Day-to-day management is conducted by its officers, who are also Bank officers. The Parent Company has historically derived most of its income through dividends from the Bank. At December 31, 2023, the Company had total assets of $3.1 billion, total deposits of $2.6 billion and total shareholders’ equity of $265.1 million.

The Bank operates in the community banking segment and engages in lending activities, including commercial, residential, commercial mortgages, construction, municipal, and various forms of consumer lending and deposit services, including checking, savings, time and money market deposits. The Bank also provides fiduciary, investment advisory, insurance and brokerage services. These activities engaged in by the Bank are authorized by the Pennsylvania Banking Code of 1965. The Company and the Bank are subject to regulation by certain federal and state agencies and undergo periodic examinations by such regulatory authorities. The concentrations of credit by type of loan are included in Note 4, Loans and Allowance for Credit Losses, to the Consolidated Financial Statements under Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data."

Human Capital

At December 31, 2023, the Bank had 410 full-time and 15 part-time employees. At December 31, 2023, approximately 66% of our workforce was female and 34% were male. Our average tenure is approximately seven years. The Parent Company has no employees. Its 12 executive officers are employees of the Bank, who represent a mix of newer and more seasoned employees with diverse experience and have an average tenure of ten years.

We encourage and support the growth and development of our employees. Continuous learning and career development is advanced through ongoing performance and development conversations with employees, internally created training programs, including development and advancement training offered through Orrstown University, customized corporate training engagements and educational reimbursement and certification programs. Training opportunities are available both online and in-person, and all employees have online access to courses for professional development provided by a third party. During 2023, we also expanded our Management Associate Program from five employees to seven employees. This program provides a structured learning experience, which ranges from one to two years, that focuses on the commercial line of business and credit administration, and then progresses into rotations within other lines of business. The inaugural class will graduate from the program in 2024.

Employee evaluations are conducted on at least an annual basis. Those evaluations focus on job performance, achievement of goals and employee and career development. In addition, we monitor employee satisfaction and engagement through periodic employee surveys.

The safety, health and wellness of our employees is a top priority. The COVID-19 pandemic presented a unique challenge with regard to maintaining employee safety while continuing successful operations. Through teamwork and the adaptability of our management and staff, our remote work options evolved as result of the COVID-19 pandemic. Currently, many of our employees effectively work a hybrid schedule from our office and remote locations. We continue to highlight the importance of the safety, health and wellness of our employees. We also introduced a number of new initiatives that focus on both physical and mental health. We take every opportunity to provide our employees with the tools and resources to assist them to navigate their work environment in a more positive and thoughtful manner.

We believe that it is critically important that its employee base reflects the communities that we serve. Our Diversity, Equity & Inclusion Council has taken concrete steps to diversify the job applicant pool. In addition to the our website, social media platforms and through talent recruiting efforts by third-party recruiters, job openings were posted directly at Historically Black Colleges and Universities within the Company's market area. Our President and Chief Executive Officer also signed the CEO ACTION for Diversity & Inclusion Pledge, which makes commitments to continue making our workplaces trusting places, implementing and expanding unconscious bias education, sharing best practices and creating and sharing strategic inclusion and diversity plans with our Board of Directors. Our Diversity, Equity and Inclusion Council continued to take impactful steps in 2023. The council provided educational opportunities to employees throughout the year and also represented the Company during Harrisburg's and Lancaster's PrideFest events, India Day and contributed for the purchase of children's books to the Salvation Army in Harrisburg in celebration of Black History Month. In 2023, our Diversity, Equity & Inclusion Council started the Company's first Employee Resource Group ("ERG"). The pilot ERG was named Orrstown Women's Network ("OWN") and includes 35 members focused on topics and initiatives that are important to women. During 2023, OWN met quarterly and also completed a fundraiser and participated in Harrisburg's Breast Cancer Awareness Walk. Subsequently, our Diversity, Equity & Inclusion Council announced its second ERG offering: an LGBTQ+ Employee Resource Group, which will provide resources, learning and networking opportunities to all of its members.

We offer competitive compensation to attract and further strengthen employee engagement and encourage retention. Compensation packages include market-competitive salary, healthcare and retirement benefits, paid time off, and may also include bonuses or sales commissions and short-term and long-term equity incentives.

We deploy numerous methods to foster employee engagement, including regular company-wide calls, weekly communication through our Orrstown Connections publications, new employee engagement event with the CEO, employee recognitions and service anniversaries including an event for Employee Appreciation Day, community service and leadership programs, annual events for all employees and off-site events with family and friends.

Lending

Federal bank regulatory agencies have adopted uniform regulations prescribing standards for extensions of credit that are secured by liens or interests in real estate or made for the purpose of financing permanent improvements to real estate. Under these regulations, all insured depository institutions, such as the Bank, must adopt and maintain written policies establishing appropriate limits and standards for extensions of credit that are secured by liens or interests in real estate or are made for the purpose of financing permanent improvements to real estate. These policies must establish loan portfolio diversification standards, prudent underwriting standards (including loan-to-value limits) that are clear and measurable, loan administration procedures and documentation, and approval and reporting requirements. The real estate lending policies must reflect consideration of the federal bank regulatory agencies’ Interagency Guidelines for Real Estate Lending Policies.

All secured loans are supported with appraisals or evaluations of collateral. Business equipment and machinery, inventories, accounts receivable, and farm equipment are considered appropriate security, provided borrowers meet acceptable standards for liquidity and marketability. Loans secured by real estate generally do not exceed 85% of the appraised value of the property. Loan to collateral values are monitored as part of the loan review process, and appraisals are updated as deemed appropriate under the circumstances.

Commercial Lending

The Bank originates commercial real estate, equipment, construction, working capital and other commercial purpose loans to commercial clients throughout the Bank’s various markets. The Bank has significant market share in south central Pennsylvania and has been expanding its presence geographically in recent years. Currently, growth markets include the

Harrisburg region, Lancaster County and Maryland markets, while the Bank's commercial lending is primarily focused in these geographic regions or with borrowers headquartered in these geographic regions, the Company’s lending area also includes adjacent counties in Pennsylvania and Maryland, as well as Loudon County, Virginia and Berkeley, Jefferson and Morgan Counties, West Virginia.

The Bank’s credit policy dictates the underwriting requirements for the various types of commercial loans the Bank makes available to borrowers. The policy covers such requirements as debt coverage ratios, advance rates against different forms of collateral, loan-to-value ratios and maximum term.

A majority of the Company’s loans are for business purposes. At December 31, 2023, approximately 79% of the loan portfolio was comprised of commercial loans.

Consumer Lending

The Bank originates home equity loans, home equity lines of credit and other consumer loans, primarily through its branch network and client service center. A large majority of the consumer loans are secured by either a first or second lien position on the borrower’s primary residential real estate. The Bank requires a loan-to-value ratio of no greater than 85% of the value of the real estate being taken as collateral with a minimum credit score of 710. The Bank also, at times, purchases consumer loans to help diversify credit risk in our loan portfolio.

Residential Lending

The Bank originates residential mortgages throughout its various markets referred from retail branches and through a network of mortgage loan officers. Residential mortgages originated by the Bank may be sold to secondary market investors, which include both GSE and non-GSE investors. All mortgages, regardless of being sold or held in the Bank’s portfolio, are generally underwritten to secondary market industry standards for prime mortgages. For loans originated for investment, the Bank requires pricing adjustments commensurate with the risk, and the real estate taken as collateral generally results in the Bank holding a first lien on the property. The loan-to-value ratio requirements of the real estate being taken as collateral varies per the Credit Policy, and may require the borrower to obtain private mortgage insurance.

Loan Review

The Company has a loan review policy and program, which is designed to identify and monitor risk in the lending function. The Management ERM Committee, comprised of executive and senior officers and loan department personnel, is charged with the oversight of overall credit quality and risk exposure of the Company's loan portfolio. This includes the monitoring of the lending activities of all Company personnel with respect to underwriting and processing new loans and the timely follow-up and corrective action for loans showing signs of deterioration in quality. A loan review program provides the Company with an independent review of the commercial loan portfolio on an ongoing basis. Generally, consumer and residential mortgage loans are included in the Pass categories unless a specific action, such as extended delinquencies, bankruptcy, repossession or death of the borrower occurs, which increases the possibility of a credit loss.

Internal loan reviews are completed annually on all commercial relationships with a committed loan balance in excess of $1.0 million, which includes confirmation of risk rating by an independent credit officer. In addition, all commercial relationships greater than $500 thousand rated substandard, doubtful or loss are reviewed quarterly and corresponding risk ratings are changed or reaffirmed by the Company's Problem Loan Committee, with subsequent reporting to the Management ERM Committee and the Board of Directors.

The Bank outsources its independent loan review to a third-party provider, who monitors and evaluates borrowers on a quarterly basis utilizing risk-rating criteria established in the credit policy in order to identify deteriorating trends and detect conditions which might indicate potential problem loans. The results of the third-party loan review are reported quarterly to the Management and Board ERM Committees for review. The loan ratings provide the basis for evaluating the adequacy of the ACL.

Deposit Products

The Bank offers deposit products to retail, commercial, non-profit and government clients through its retail branch network, its website and commercial team. Product offerings for retail clients include checking accounts, money market, savings and certificates of deposit. The Bank offers a suite of treasury management solutions for businesses that help them to forecast and manage their cash and receivables. The Bank is committed to advancing digital capabilities for all clients, to ensure scalability and optimization of financial performance within the organizations. A robust treasury management online banking platform allows clients to send and collect money electronically using ACH and wire transfer origination services, deposit checks via mobile or desktop capture, and mitigate fraud through check and ACH positive pay services. Wire transfers may be sent and also received domestically, as well as internationally in most currencies. Online bill-pay services allow check and electronic payments, with same day, next day and future dated payments. Additionally, business clients can automatically move money between Bank accounts using various automated sweep services. Using strategic partnerships, the Bank is able to offer best-in-class lockbox services, armored cash logistic solutions, credit cards, purchasing cards, and merchant card processing services.

Digital capability for consumers includes person-to-person (P2P) payment, bill pay, mobile deposit capture and domestic money transfer services. Traditional domestic and international wire transfer services are also offered via the Bank's branches. In addition to opening accounts and communicating with employees via traditional branch or call-center engagement, digital online account opening, online loan and credit card application processing, online mortgage pre-qualification and mortgage application processing, automated telephone services, and online chat features provide consumers with convenient digital alternatives to more traditional products and services.

The Bank competes for deposits similarly on the basis of a combination of value and service and by providing convenience through a broad network of branches, ATMs, card services, and digital service channels.

Investment Services

Through its trust department, the Bank renders services as trustee, executor, administrator, guardian, managing agent, custodian, investment advisor, and other fiduciary activities authorized by law under the trade name Orrstown Financial Advisors, or OFA. OFA offers retail brokerage services through a third-party broker/dealer arrangement with Cetera Advisor Networks LLC. At December 31, 2023, assets under management by OFA totaled $1.8 billion.

Competition

The Bank’s principal market area consists of south central Pennsylvania, the greater Baltimore region, and Washington County, Maryland. The Bank serves a substantial number of depositors in this market area and its contiguous counties.

The Bank competes with other banks and less heavily regulated financial services companies, such as credit unions and finance and trust companies, as well as mortgage banking companies, mutual funds, investment advisors, and brokerage firms, both within and outside of its primary market areas. Financial technology companies, or Fintechs, are also providing nontraditional, but increasingly strong competition for the acquisition and retention of clients.

The Bank competes for loans primarily on the basis of a combination of value and service by building client relationships as a result of addressing its clients’ banking needs, demonstrating expertise, and providing convenience to its clients.

The Bank competes for deposits similarly on the basis of a combination of value and service and by providing convenience through a banking network of branches and ATMs within its markets and digital service channels such as mobile banking.

The Company implements strategic initiatives focused on expanding its core businesses and exploring, on an ongoing basis, acquisition, divestiture, and joint venture opportunities to the extent permitted by its regulators and in alignment with its strategic goals. The Company analyzes each of the Bank's products and businesses in the context of shareholder return, client demands, competitive advantages, industry dynamics, and growth potential. The Company's management believes its market area will support further growth in the future.

Regulation and Supervision

The Parent Company is a bank holding company registered with the FRB and has elected status as a FHC. The Bank is a Pennsylvania-chartered commercial bank and a member bank of the Federal Reserve System.

Regulatory Environment

The banking industry is highly regulated, and Orrstown is subject to supervision, regulation, and examination by the FRB, as its primary federal regulator, and the Pennsylvania Department of Banking and Securities. The statutory and regulatory framework that governs the Company is generally intended to protect depositors and clients, the FDIC's Deposit Insurance Fund, the U.S. banking and financial system, and financial markets as a whole by ensuring the safety and soundness of bank holding companies ("BHCs") and banks. Bank regulators regularly examine the operations of BHCs and banks. Regulators have broad supervisory and enforcement authority over BHCs and banks, including the power to impose nonpublic supervisory agreements, issue cease and desist orders, impose fines and other civil penalties, terminate deposit insurance, and appoint a conservator or receiver. Engaging in unsafe or unsound practices or failing to comply with applicable laws, regulations, and supervisory agreements could subject the Company and its respective officers, directors, and institution-affiliated parties to the remedies described above, and other sanctions.

Banking statutes, regulations, and policies are continually under review, as applicable, by Congress, state legislatures, and federal and state regulatory agencies. In addition to laws and regulations, state and federal bank regulatory agencies may issue policy statements, interpretive letters, and similar written guidance applicable to Orrstown. Any change in statutes, regulations, or regulatory policies applicable to us, including changes in their interpretation or implementation, could have a material effect on our business or organization.

The Parent Company is also subject to the disclosure and regulatory requirements of the Securities Act and the Exchange Act, both as administered by the SEC, as well as the rules of Nasdaq that apply to companies with securities listed on the Nasdaq Capital Market.

Several of the more significant regulatory provisions applicable to BHCs and banks to which the Company are subject are discussed below, along with certain regulatory matters concerning the Parent Company and the Bank. To the extent that the following information describes statutory or regulatory provisions, such information is qualified in its entirety by reference to the particular statutes or regulations. Any change in applicable law or regulation may have a material effect on the business and prospects of the Parent Company and the Bank.

Financial and Bank Holding Company Activities

As a FHC, the Parent Company is permitted to engage, directly or through subsidiaries, in a wide variety of activities that are financial in nature or are incidental or complementary to a financial activity, in addition to all of the activities otherwise allowed.

As a FHC, the Parent Company is generally subject to the same regulation as other BHCs, including the reporting, examination, supervision and consolidated capital requirements of the FRB. To preserve its FHC status, the Parent Company must remain well-capitalized and well-managed and ensure that the Bank remains well-capitalized and well-managed for regulatory purposes and earns “satisfactory” or better ratings on its periodic CRA examinations. An FHC ceasing to meet these standards is subject to a variety of restrictions, depending on the circumstances.

If the Parent Company or the Bank are either not well-capitalized or not well-managed, the Parent Company or the Bank must promptly notify the FRB. Until compliance is restored, the FRB has broad discretion to impose appropriate limitations on a FHC’s activities. If compliance is not restored within 180 days, the FRB may ultimately require the FHC to divest its depository institutions or in the alternative, to discontinue or divest any activities that are permitted only to non-FHC bank holding companies.

If the FRB determines that a FHC or its subsidiaries do not satisfy the CRA requirements, the potential restrictions are different. In that case, until all of the subsidiary institutions are restored to at least “satisfactory” CRA rating status, the FHC may not engage, directly or through a subsidiary, in any of the additional activities permissible under the BHC Act nor make additional acquisitions of companies engaged in such additional activities. However, completed acquisitions and additional activities and affiliations previously begun are left undisturbed, as the BHC Act does not require divestiture for this type of situation.

Federal Deposit Insurance

The FDIC's Deposit Insurance Fund provides insurance coverage for certain deposits, up to a standard maximum deposit insurance amount of $250 thousand per depositor and is funded through assessments on insured depository institutions, based on a methodology designed to take into account the risk each institution poses to the Deposit Insurance Fund. The Bank accepts client deposits that are insured by the Deposit Insurance Fund and, therefore, must pay insurance premiums. The FDIC may increase the Bank’s insurance premiums based on various factors, including changes in the Bank's risk profile. Beginning with the first quarterly assessment period of 2023, the FDIC increased the initial base deposit insurance assessment rate by two basis points, which is intended to increase the Deposit Insurance Fund ("DIF") reserve ratio to the statutory minimum of 1.35%. For 2023, the FDIC insurance expense for the Bank was $2.0 million.

In November 2023, the FDIC approved a final rule to implement a special assessment to recover the loss to the DIF associated with protecting uninsured deposits from bank events earlier in 2023. The FDIC will collect the special assessment beginning with the first quarterly assessment of 2024 and will continue to collect the special assessment for an estimated total of eight quarterly assessment periods. Banking organizations with total assets under $5.0 billion will be exempt from the special assessment, which is based on data from the December 31, 2022 reporting period.

If the FDIC is appointed conservator or receiver of a bank upon that bank’s insolvency or the occurrence of other events, the FDIC may sell some, part, or all of a bank’s assets and liabilities to another bank or repudiate or disaffirm most types of contracts to which that bank was a party if the FDIC believes such contracts are burdensome. In resolving the estate of a failed bank, the FDIC as receiver will first satisfy its own administrative expenses, and the claims of holders of U.S. deposit liabilities also have priority over those of other general unsecured creditors.

Liability for Banking Subsidiaries

The Parent Company is required to serve as a source of financial and managerial strength to the Bank and, under appropriate conditions, to commit resources to support the Bank. This support may be required by the FRB at times when the Bank might otherwise determine not to provide it or when doing so is not otherwise in the interests of the Parent Company or its shareholders or creditors. The FRB may require a BHC to make capital injections into a troubled subsidiary bank and may charge the BHC with engaging in unsafe and unsound practices if the BHC fails to commit resources to such a subsidiary bank or if it undertakes actions that the FRB believes might jeopardize the BHC’s ability to commit resources to such subsidiary bank.

Under these requirements, the Parent Company may in the future be required to provide financial assistance to the Bank should it experience financial distress. Any loans by a holding company to its subsidiary bank are subordinate in right of payment to deposits and to certain other indebtedness of such subsidiary bank. In the event of the Parent Company's bankruptcy, any commitment by the Parent Company to a federal bank regulatory agency to maintain the capital of the Bank would be assumed by the bankruptcy trustee and entitled to a priority of payment.

Pennsylvania Banking Law

The Pennsylvania Banking Code contains detailed provisions governing the organization, location of offices, rights and responsibilities of directors, officers, and employees, as well as corporate powers, savings and investment operations and other aspects of the Bank and its affairs. The Pennsylvania Banking Code delegates extensive rule-making power and administrative discretion to the Pennsylvania Department of Banking and Securities so that the supervision and regulation of state-chartered banks may be flexible and readily responsive to changes in economic conditions and in savings and lending practices.

The FDIA, however, prohibits state-chartered banks from making new investments, loans, or becoming involved in activities as principal and equity investments which are not permitted for national banks unless the FDIC determines the activity or investment does not pose a significant risk of loss to the Deposit Insurance Fund, and a bank meets all applicable capital requirements. Accordingly, additional operating authority provided to the Bank by the Pennsylvania Banking Code may be significantly restricted by the FDIA.

Dividend Restrictions

The Parent Company is a legal entity separate and distinct from its banking and non-banking subsidiaries. Since the Parent Company's consolidated net income consists largely of net income of its subsidiaries, its ability to make capital distributions, including paying dividends and repurchasing shares, depends upon its receipt of dividends from these subsidiaries. Under federal law, there are various limitations on the extent to which the Bank can declare and pay dividends to the Parent Company, including those related to regulatory capital requirements, general regulatory oversight to prevent unsafe or unsound practices, and federal banking law requirements concerning the payment of dividends out of net profits, surplus, and available earnings. The Bank must maintain the CET1 Capital Conservation Buffer requirement of 2.5% to avoid becoming subject to restrictions on capital distributions, including dividends. Certain contractual restrictions also may limit the ability of the Bank to pay dividends to the Parent Company. No assurances can be given that the Bank will, in any circumstances, pay dividends to the Parent Company.

The Parent Company's ability to declare and pay dividends to its shareholders is similarly limited by federal banking law and FRB regulations and policy.

FRB policy provides that a BHC should not pay dividends unless (1) the BHC’s net income over the last four quarters (net of dividends paid) is sufficient to fully fund the dividends, (2) the prospective rate of earnings retention appears consistent with the capital needs, asset quality, and overall financial condition of the BHC and its subsidiaries, and (3) the BHC will continue to meet minimum required capital adequacy ratios. Accordingly, a BHC should not pay cash dividends that can only be funded in ways that weaken the BHC’s financial health, such as by borrowing. The policy also provides that a BHC should inform the FRB reasonably in advance of declaring or paying a dividend that exceeds earnings for the period for which the dividend is being paid or that could result in a material adverse change to the BHC’s capital structure. BHCs also are expected to consult with the FRB before increasing dividends or redeeming or repurchasing capital instruments. Additionally, the FRB could prohibit or limit the payment of dividends by a BHC if it determines that payment of the dividend would constitute an unsafe or unsound practice.

Transactions between a Bank and its Affiliates

Federal banking laws and regulations impose qualitative standards and quantitative limitations upon certain transactions between a bank and its affiliates, including between a bank and its holding company and companies that the BHC may be deemed to control for these purposes. Transactions covered by these provisions must be on arm’s-length terms, and cannot be offered on terms more favorable than would be offered to non-related borrowers of similar creditworthiness, and cannot exceed certain amounts which are determined with reference to that bank’s regulatory capital. Moreover, if the transaction is a loan or other extension of credit, it must be secured by collateral in an amount and quality expressly prescribed by statute, and if the affiliate is unable to pledge sufficient collateral, the BHC may be required to provide it. The Dodd-Frank Act expanded the coverage and scope of these restrictions and requirements, including by applying them to the credit exposure arising under derivative transactions, repurchase and reverse repurchase agreements, and securities borrowing and lending transactions. Federal banking laws also place similar restrictions on loans and other extensions of credit by FDIC-insured banks, such as the Bank, and their subsidiaries to their directors, executive officers, and principal shareholders.

Regulatory Capital Requirements

Compliance with respect to capital requirements is incorporated by reference from Note 17, Shareholders' Equity and Regulatory Capital, to the Consolidated Financial Statements under Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data," and from the Capital Adequacy and Regulatory Matters section of Item 7, “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Consolidated Financial Condition and Results of Operations.”

The Bank is subject to certain risk-based capital and leverage ratio requirements under the U.S. Basel III capital rules adopted by the FRB. These rules implement the Basel III international regulatory capital standards in the U.S., as well as certain provisions of the Dodd-Frank Act. These quantitative calculations are minimums, and the FRB may determine that a banking organization, based on its size, complexity, or risk profile, must maintain a higher level of capital in order to operate in a safe and sound manner.

Under the U.S. Basel III capital rules, the Parent Company's and the Bank’s assets, exposures, and certain off-balance sheet items are subject to risk weights used to determine the institutions’ risk-weighted assets. These risk-weighted assets are used to calculate the following minimum capital ratios for the Parent Company and the Bank:

• CET1 Risk-Based Capital Ratio, equal to the ratio of CET1 capital to risk-weighted assets. CET1 capital primarily includes common shareholders’ equity subject to certain regulatory adjustments and deductions, including goodwill, intangible assets, certain deferred tax assets, and AOCI. The Company has elected to opt out of including AOCI components.
• Tier 1 Risk-Based Capital Ratio, equal to the ratio of Tier 1 capital to risk-weighted assets. Tier 1 capital is primarily comprised of CET1 capital, perpetual preferred stock, and certain qualifying capital instruments.
• Total Risk-Based Capital Ratio, equal to the ratio of total capital, including CET1 capital, Tier 1 capital, and Tier 2 capital, to risk-weighted assets. Tier 2 capital primarily includes qualifying subordinated debt and qualifying ACL.
• Tier 1 Leverage Ratio, equal to the ratio of Tier 1 capital to quarterly average assets (net of goodwill, certain other intangible assets, and certain other deductions).

Failure to be well-capitalized or to meet minimum capital requirements could result in certain mandatory and possible additional discretionary actions by regulators that, if undertaken, could have an adverse material effect on our operations or financial condition. Failure to be well-capitalized or to meet minimum capital requirements could also result in restrictions on the Bank’s ability to pay dividends or otherwise distribute capital or to receive regulatory approval of applications.

In addition to meeting the minimum capital requirements, under the U.S. Basel III capital rules, the Bank must also maintain the required Capital Conservation Buffer to avoid becoming subject to restrictions on capital distributions and certain discretionary bonus payments to management. The Capital Conservation Buffer is calculated as a ratio of CET1 capital to risk-weighted assets, and it effectively increases the required minimum risk-based capital ratios. The Capital Conservation Buffer requirement is 2.5%. The Tier 1 Leverage Ratio is not impacted by the Capital Conservation Buffer, and a banking institution may be considered well-capitalized while remaining out of compliance with the Capital Conservation Buffer.

The Parent Company has the ability to provide additional capital to the Bank to maintain the Bank’s risk-based capital ratios at levels which would be considered well-capitalized.

At December 31, 2023, the Company's and the Bank’s regulatory capital ratios were above applicable well-capitalized standards and met the Capital Conservation Buffer requirement.

Bank Acquisitions by Orrstown

BHCs must obtain prior approval of the Federal Reserve in connection with any acquisition that results in the BHC owning or controlling 5% or more of any class of voting securities of a bank or another BHC.

Acquisitions of Ownership of Orrstown

Acquisitions of Orrstown's voting stock above certain thresholds are subject to prior regulatory notice or approval under federal banking laws, including the BHC Act and the Change in Bank Control Act of 1978. Under the Change in Bank Control Act, a person or entity generally must provide prior notice to the FRB before acquiring the power to vote 10% or more of our outstanding common stock. Investors should be aware of these requirements when acquiring shares in the Company's stock.

Data Privacy

Federal and state law contains extensive consumer privacy protection provisions. The GLB Act requires financial institutions to periodically disclose their privacy policies and practices relating to sharing such information and enables retail clients to opt out of our ability to share information with unaffiliated third parties under certain circumstances. Other federal and state laws and regulations impact our ability to share certain information with affiliates and non-affiliates for marketing and/or non-marketing purposes, or to contact clients with marketing offers. These security and privacy policies and procedures for the protection of personal and confidential information are in effect across all businesses and geographic locations as applicable. Federal law also makes it a criminal offense, except in limited circumstances, to obtain or attempt to obtain client information of a financial nature by fraudulent or deceptive means. Data privacy and data protection are areas of increasing federal and state legislative focus.

Like other lenders, the Bank uses credit bureau data in its underwriting activities. Use of such data is regulated under the Fair Credit Reporting Act, which also regulates reporting information to credit bureaus, prescreening individuals for credit offers, sharing of information between affiliates, and using affiliate data for marketing purposes. Similar state laws may impose additional requirements on the Company.

Cybersecurity

Multiple federal laws contain provisions requiring regulated financial institutions to maintain cybersecurity programs incorporating specific elements. The GLB Act requires financial institutions to implement a comprehensive information security program that includes administrative, technical, and physical safeguards to ensure the security and confidentiality of client records and information.

The Cybersecurity Information Sharing Act is intended to improve cybersecurity in the U.S. by enhanced sharing of information about security threats among the U.S. government and private sector entities, including financial institutions. The Cybersecurity Information Sharing Act also authorizes companies to monitor their own systems notwithstanding any other provision of law and allows companies to carry out defensive measures on their own systems from cyber-attacks. The law includes liability protections for companies that share cyber threat information with third parties so long as such sharing activity is conducted in accordance with Cybersecurity Information Sharing Act.

The United States federal bank regulatory agencies adopted a rule regarding notification requirements for banking organizations related to significant computer security incidents. Effective April 1, 2022, a bank holding company and a state member bank are required to notify the Federal Reserve within 36 hours of incidents that have materially disrupted or degraded, or are reasonably likely to materially disrupt or degrade, the banking organization’s ability to deliver services to a material portion of its client base, jeopardize the viability of key operations of the banking organization, or impact the stability of the financial sector.

Community Reinvestment Act

The CRA is intended to encourage banks to help meet the credit needs of their service areas, including low- and moderate-income neighborhoods, consistent with safe and sound business practices. The relevant federal bank regulatory agency, the FRB in the Bank’s case, examines each bank and assigns it a public CRA rating. A bank’s record of fair lending compliance is part of the resulting CRA examination report. The CRA requires the relevant federal bank regulatory agency to consider a bank’s CRA assessment when considering that bank’s application to conduct certain mergers or acquisitions or to open or relocate a branch office. The FRB also must consider the CRA record of each subsidiary bank of a BHC in connection with any acquisition or merger application filed by the BHC. An unsatisfactory CRA record could substantially delay or result in the denial of an approval or application by the Parent Company or the Bank. The Bank received a CRA rating of “Satisfactory” in its most recent examination prepared by the FRB on January 25, 2021. Leaders of the federal banking agencies had indicated their support for modernizing the CRA regulatory framework to address changing delivery systems and consumer preferences, and on October 24, 2023, the agencies jointly issued a final rule to strengthen and modernize the CRA regulations by maintaining the existing CRA ratings, but modifying the evaluation framework to replace the existing tests generally applicable to banks with at least $2.0 billion in total assets (e.g., the lending, investment and service tests) with four new tests and associated performance metrics. The final rule updates the CRA regulations to expand access to credit, investment, and basic banking services in low- and moderate-income communities, adapt to changes in the banking industry, including the expanded role of mobile and online banking, and provide greater clarity and consistency. The new CRA regulations will become effective on January 1, 2026.

Anti-Money Laundering

The Bank Secrecy Act and the PATRIOT Act contain anti-money laundering and financial transparency provisions intended to detect and prevent the use of the U.S. financial system for money laundering and terrorist financing activities. The Bank Secrecy Act, as amended by the PATRIOT Act, requires depository institutions and their holding companies to undertake activities including maintaining an anti-money laundering program, verifying the identity of clients, verifying the identity of certain beneficial owners for legal entity clients, monitoring for and reporting suspicious transactions, reporting on cash transactions exceeding specified thresholds, and responding to requests for information by regulatory authorities and law enforcement agencies. The Bank is subject to the Bank Secrecy Act and, therefore, is required to provide its employees with anti-money laundering training, designate an anti-money laundering compliance officer, and undergo an annual, independent audit to assess the effectiveness of its anti-money laundering program. The Bank has implemented policies, procedures, and internal controls that are designed to comply with these anti-money laundering requirements. Bank regulators are focusing their examinations on anti-money laundering compliance, and we will continue to monitor and augment, where necessary, our anti-money laundering compliance programs. The federal banking agencies are required, when reviewing bank and BHC acquisition or merger applications, to consider the effectiveness of the anti-money laundering activities of the applicant.

The Anti-Money Laundering Act of 2020 (“AMLA”), which amends the BSA, was enacted in January 2021. The AMLA codifies a risk-based approach to anti-money laundering compliance for financial institutions; requires the U.S. Department of the Treasury ("Treasury") to promulgate priorities for anti-money laundering and countering the financing of terrorism policy; requires the development of standards by the Treasury for testing technology and internal processes for BSA compliance; expands enforcement- and investigation-related authority, including a significant expansion in the available sanctions for certain BSA violations; and expands BSA whistleblower incentives and protections. Many of the statutory provisions in the AMLA required additional rulemaking, reports and other measures, and the impact of the AMLA will depend on, among other things, rulemaking and implementation guidance. Of these statutory provisions, the final rule for the Corporate Transparency Act (the "CTA") became effective January 1, 2024. The CTA authorized FinCEN to collect uniform beneficial ownership information for certain types of corporations, limited liability companies or other similar entities and disclose the information to authorized Federal agencies engaged in national security, intelligence, or law enforcement activities; state, local, and Tribal law enforcement agencies with court authorization; financial institutions with client due diligence requirements and regulators supervising them for compliance with such requirements; foreign law enforcement agencies, prosecutors, judges, and other agencies that meet specific criteria; and Treasury officers and employees under certain circumstances in an attempt to help prevent criminal and terrorist activity.

Office of Foreign Assets Control Regulation

The Office of Foreign Assets Control is responsible for administering economic sanctions that affect transactions with designated foreign countries, nationals, and others, as defined by various Executive Orders and in various legislation. Office of Foreign Assets Control-administered sanctions take many different forms. For example, sanctions may include: (1) restrictions on trade with or investment in a sanctioned country, including prohibitions against direct or indirect imports from and exports to a sanctioned country and prohibitions on U.S. persons engaging in financial transactions relating to, making investments in, or providing investment-related advice or assistance to, a sanctioned country; and (2) a blocking of assets in which the government or “specially designated nationals” of the sanctioned country have an interest, by prohibiting transfers of property subject to U.S. jurisdiction, including property in the possession or control of U.S. persons. The Office of Foreign Assets Control also publishes lists of persons, organizations, and countries suspected of aiding, harboring, or engaging in terrorist acts, known as Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons. Blocked assets, such as property and bank deposits, cannot be paid out, withdrawn, set off, or transferred in any manner without a license from the Office of Foreign Assets Control. Failure to comply with these sanctions could have serious legal and reputational consequences.

Transaction Account Reserves

FRB regulations require depository institutions to maintain cash reserves against specified deposit liabilities. The dollar amount of a depository institution's reserve requirement is determined by applying the reserve ratios specified in Regulation D to an institution's transaction accounts (primarily NOW and regular checking accounts). The FRB issued a final rule, effective December 22, 2020, lowering the reserve requirement on transaction accounts to 0%. Effective January 1, 2024, the FRB will establish the new reserve requirement exemption amount and low reserve tranche for 2024, but will not elevate the current reserve percentage from zero for depository institutions.

Consumer Protection Regulation and Supervision

The Bank is subject to the regulations promulgated by the CFPB, as administered by the FRB, with respect to federal consumer protection laws. The Bank is also subject to certain state consumer protection laws and, under the Dodd-Frank Act, state attorneys general and other state officials are empowered to enforce certain federal consumer protection laws and regulations. State authorities have increased their focus on and enforcement of consumer protection rules. These federal and state consumer protection laws apply to a broad range of the Bank's activities and to various aspects of its business and include laws relating to interest rates, fair lending, disclosures of credit terms and estimated transaction costs to consumer borrowers, debt collection practices, the use and provision of information to consumer reporting agencies, and the prohibition of unfair, deceptive, or abusive acts or practices in connection with the offer, sale, or provision of consumer financial products and services.

The CFPB has promulgated many mortgage-related final rules since it was established under the Dodd-Frank Act, including rules related to the ability to repay, qualified mortgage standards, mortgage servicing standards, loan originator compensation standards, high-cost mortgage requirements, Home Mortgage Disclosure Act requirements, and appraisal and escrow standards for higher priced mortgages. The mortgage-related final rules issued by the CFPB have materially restructured the origination, servicing, and securitization of residential mortgages in the U.S. These rules have impacted, and will continue to impact, the business practices of residential mortgage lenders, including the Bank.

Nasdaq Capital Market

The Company’s common stock is listed on the Nasdaq Capital Market under the trading symbol “ORRF” and is subject to Nasdaq’s rules for listed companies.

Available Information

The Company is subject to the informational requirements of the Exchange Act and, in accordance with the Exchange Act, it files annual, quarterly, and current reports, proxy statements, and other information with the SEC. The SEC maintains an Internet web site that contains reports, proxy statements, and other information about issuers, like us, who file electronically with the SEC. The address of the site is www.sec.gov (http://www.sec.gov). The reports and other information, including any related amendments, filed by us with, or furnished pursuant to Section 13(a) or 15(d) of the Exchange Act, by the Company to, the SEC are also available free of charge at our Internet web site as soon as reasonably practicable after such material is electronically filed with, or furnished to, the SEC. The address of the site is www.orrstown.com (http://www.orrstown.com). Except as specifically incorporated by reference into this Annual Report on Form 10-K, information on those web sites is not part of this report.

An investment in our common stock is subject to risks inherent in our business. The material risks and uncertainties that management believes affect us are described below. This report is qualified in its entirety by these risk factors.

Before making an investment decision, you should carefully consider the risks and uncertainties described below together with all of the other information included or incorporated by reference in this report and our other filings with the SEC. The risks and uncertainties described below are not the only ones facing us. Additional risks and uncertainties that management is not aware of or focused on or that management currently deems immaterial may also impair our business operations.

If any of the following risks actually materialize, our business, financial condition and results of operations could be materially and adversely affected. If this were to happen, the market price of our common stock could decline significantly, and you could lose all or part of your investment.

Risks Related to Credit

If our allowance for credit losses is not sufficient to cover actual losses, our earnings would decrease.

The ACL is recorded as a reduction to loans and leases on the consolidated balance sheet, and the reserve for unfunded lending commitments is included in other liabilities on the consolidated balance sheet. While we believe that our ACL as of December 31, 2023 was sufficient to cover losses in the loan and lease portfolio on that date, we may need to increase our provision for credit losses in future periods due to changes in the risk characteristics of the loan and lease portfolio, thereby negatively impacting our results of operations.

On January 1, 2023, the Company adopted ASU 2016-13, the current expected credit losses accounting standard commonly referred to as "CECL," which replaced the incurred loss model with the lifetime expected loss model. The CECL methodology requires an organization to measure all expected credit losses over the contractual term for financial assets measured at amortized cost, including loans, based on historical experience, current conditions, and reasonable and supportable forecasts. The adoption of the new CECL standard resulted in a cumulative-effect adjustment that increased the ACL for loans by $2.4 million and increased the off-balance sheet credit exposures reserve by $100 thousand. Retained earnings, net of deferred taxes, decreased by $2.0 million, and deferred tax assets increased by $559 thousand. As a result of the adoption of CECL standard, companies must recognize credit losses on these assets equal to management’s estimate of credit losses over the assets’ remaining expected lives. It is possible that our ongoing reported earnings and lending activity will be impacted negatively as a result of the application of CECL.

The ACL is determined based on various factors impacting the quality of the loan and lease portfolio as indicated by our borrowers' financial condition, payment performance, the value of the underlying collateral, and the support from a guarantor, in addition to the impact from economic conditions, government macroeconomic policies, interest rates and the regulatory environment. The experience and expertise of our loan officers, credit analysts and special assets group are essential to performing credit quality reviews, in addition to analyzing trends in delinquencies, levels of non-accruing and criticized loans and leases and modifications to loan terms. The ACL may also be influenced by other factors, including concentrations by the type of loan, collateral, borrower or location of the collateral or borrower. Such concentrations could increase the possibility that similarly situated borrowers and their collateral may collectively be affected by certain economic conditions.

Determining the ACL inherently involves a high degree of subjectivity and requires us to make significant estimates of current credit risks and trends, all of which may undergo material changes. We cannot be sure that we will be able to identify deteriorating credits before they become nonperforming assets or that we will be able to limit losses on those loans and leases that are identified. We have in the past been, and in the future may be, required to increase our ACL for any of several reasons. State and federal regulators, in reviewing our loan and lease portfolio as part of a regulatory examination, may request that we increase the ACL. Changes in economic conditions or individual business or personal circumstances affecting borrowers, new information regarding existing loans and leases, identification of additional problem loans and leases and other factors, both within and outside of our control, may require an increase in the ACL.

If our assessment of and expectations concerning the above-mentioned factors differ from actual developments, we may be required to increase our ACL, which could have an adverse effect on our financial condition, results of operations and our regulatory capital.

Commercial real estate lending may expose us to a greater risk of loss and impact our earnings and profitability.

Our business strategy includes making loans secured by commercial real estate. These types of loans generally have higher risk-adjusted returns and shorter maturities than other loans. Loans secured by commercial real estate properties are generally for larger amounts and may involve a greater degree of risk than other loans. Payments on loans secured by these properties are often dependent on the income produced by the underlying properties which, in turn, depends on the successful operation and management of the properties and the businesses that operate within them. Accordingly, repayment of these loans is subject to conditions in the real estate market or the local economy. Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic has had a potentially long-term negative impact on certain commercial real estate assets due to the risk that tenants may reduce the office space they lease as some portion of the workforce continues to work remotely on a hybrid or full-time basis. In challenging economic conditions and as a result of changing demand for office space, these loans represent higher risk and could result in internal risk rating downgrades and an increase in our total net charge-offs, requiring us to increase our ACL, which could have a material adverse effect on our financial condition or results of operations. While we seek to minimize these risks in a variety of ways, there can be no assurance that these measures will protect against credit-related losses.

Our loan portfolio has a significant concentration in commercial real estate loans.

Our loan portfolio includes a large amount of commercial real estate loans. The federal banking agencies have promulgated guidance governing banks with concentrations in commercial real estate lending. The guidance provides that a bank has a concentration in commercial real estate lending if (i) total reported loans for construction, land development and other land represent 100% or more of total risk-based capital or (ii) total commercial real estate loans represent 300% or more of total risk-based capital and that bank’s commercial real estate loan portfolio has increased 50% or more during the prior thirty-six months. Owner-occupied commercial real estate loans are excluded from this second category. If a bank is deemed to have a concentration in commercial real estate loans, it will be required to employ heightened risk management practices that address board and management oversight and strategic planning, portfolio management, development of underwriting standards, risk assessment and monitoring through market analysis and stress testing and maintenance of increased capital levels as needed to support the level of commercial real estate lending. At December 31, 2023, the Bank’s construction, land development and other land balances were 44% of total risk-based capital, commercial real estate loans were 307% of total risk- based capital and the Bank’s commercial real estate loan portfolio had increased by 69% during the prior thirty-six months. In addition, the Bank's office space portfolio was 71% of total risk-based capital at December 31, 2023. At this date, the Bank's office space portfolio included only limited exposure to properties in major metropolitan markets and amounted to approximately 2% of the total commercial real estate loan portfolio balance. The Bank believes it has taken the appropriate steps to implement appropriate risk management practices, which are subject to regulatory examination, including enhanced market analysis, stress testing and sensitivity analysis. If our regulators conclude that we have not implemented appropriate risk management practices, it could adversely affect our business, and could result in the requirement to maintain increased capital levels or restrict our ability to originate new loans secured by commercial real estate. We can provide no assurance that capital would be available, or available on terms favorable to us, at that time.

The credit risk related to commercial and industrial loans is greater than the risk related to residential loans.

Commercial and industrial loans generally carry larger loan balances and involve a greater degree of risk of nonpayment or late payment than home equity loans or residential mortgage loans. Commercial and industrial loans include advances to local and regional businesses for general commercial purposes and include permanent and short-term working capital, machinery and equipment financing, and may be either in the form of lines of credit or term loans. Although commercial and industrial loans may be unsecured to our highest rated borrowers, the majority of these loans are secured by the borrower’s accounts receivable, inventory and machinery and equipment. In a significant number of these loans, the collateral also includes the business real estate or the business owner’s personal real estate or assets. Commercial and industrial loans are more susceptible to risk of loss during a downturn in the economy, as borrowers may have greater difficulty in meeting their debt service requirements and the value of the collateral may decline. We attempt to mitigate this risk through our underwriting standards, including evaluating the creditworthiness of the borrower, regular monitoring, and, to the extent available, credit ratings on the business. However, these procedures cannot entirely eliminate the risk of loss associated with commercial and industrial lending.

Environmental liability associated with our lending activities could result in losses.

In the course of business, we may acquire, through foreclosure, properties securing loans originated or purchased that are in default. Particularly in commercial real estate lending, there is a risk that material environmental violations could be discovered on these properties. In this event, we might be required to remedy these violations at the affected properties at our sole cost and expense. The cost of remedial action could substantially exceed the value of affected properties. We may not have adequate remedies against the prior owner or other responsible parties and could find it difficult or impossible to sell the affected properties. These events could have an adverse effect on our financial condition and results of operations.

Risks Related to Interest Rates and Investments

Changes in interest rates could adversely impact our financial condition and results of operations.

Our operations are subject to risks and uncertainties surrounding our exposure to changes in the interest rate environment. Earnings and liquidity depend to a great extent on our interest rates. Interest rates are highly sensitive to many factors beyond our control, including competition, general economic conditions, geopolitical tensions and monetary and fiscal policies of various governmental and regulatory authorities, including the FRB. Conditions such as inflation, deflation, recession, unemployment and other factors beyond our control may also affect interest rates. The nature and timing of any changes in interest rates or general economic conditions and their effect on us cannot be controlled and are difficult to predict. If the rate of interest we pay on our interest-bearing liabilities increases more than the rate of interest we receive on our interest-earning assets, our net interest income, and therefore our earnings, could contract and be materially adversely affected. Our earnings could also be materially adversely affected if the rates on interest-earning assets fall more quickly than those on our interest-bearing liabilities. Changes in interest rates could also create competitive pressures, which could impact our liquidity position.

Changes in interest rates also can affect our ability to originate loans, our ability to obtain and retain deposits, and the value of interest-earning assets, and the ability to realize gains from the sale of such assets, which could all negatively impact shareholder's equity and regulatory capital. Since March 2022, the Federal Reserve Open Markets Committee ("FOMC") has raised the Fed Funds rate by 525 basis points. Additional increases in interest rates could also have a negative impact on our results of operations by reducing the ability of borrowers to repay their current loan obligations, which could not only result in increased loan defaults, foreclosures and charge-offs, but could also necessitate further increases to our ACL and reduce net income. In addition, based on our interest rate sensitivity analyses, an increase in the general level of interest rates may negatively affect the market value of the investment portfolio depending on the duration of certain securities included in the investment portfolio. In December of 2023, the FOMC signaled its intention to reduce interest rates in 2024, contingent upon inflation settling at its 2.0% target. A decrease in interest rates may trigger loan prepayments, which may serve to reduce net interest income if we are unable to lend these funds to other borrowers or invest the funds at the same or higher interest rates.

Our subordinated notes, issued in December 2018, had a 6.0% fixed interest rate through December 30, 2023, after which the interest rate converted to a variable rate, 90-day average fallback SOFR rate, plus 3.16% through maturity in December 2028. At December 31, 2023, the interest rate on our subordinated debt was 8.78%. An increase in the interest rate on our subordinated debt could have a material adverse effect on our results of operations.

Our securities portfolio performance in difficult market conditions could have adverse effects on our results of operations.

Unrealized losses on investment securities result from changes in market interest rates, credit spreads and liquidity in the marketplace, along with changes in the credit profile of individual securities issuers. Prior to implementation of CECL, unrealized losses on AFS debt securities caused by a credit event would require the direct write-down of the AFS security through the OTTI approach; however, the new standard under ASC 326-30, Financial Instruments - Credit Losses, requires credit losses to be presented as an ACL. We are still required to conduct an impairment evaluation on AFS securities to determine whether the Company has the intent to sell the security or it is more likely than not that it will be required to sell the security before recovery. If these situations apply, the guidance continues to require us to reduce the security's amortized cost basis down to its fair value through earnings.

We also evaluate the unrealized losses on AFS securities to determine if a security's decline in fair value below its amortized cost basis is due to credit factors. The evaluation is based upon factors such as the creditworthiness of the underlying borrowers, performance of the underlying collateral, if applicable, and the level of credit support in the security structure. Management also evaluates other factors and circumstances that may be indicative of a decline in the fair value of the security due to a credit factor. This includes, but is not limited to, an evaluation of the type of security, length of time and extent to which the fair value has been less than cost and near-term prospects of the issuer. If this assessment indicates that a credit loss exists, the present value of the expected cash flows of the security is compared to the amortized cost basis of the security. Under the CECL standard, if the present value of the cash flows expected to be collected is less than the amortized cost, an ACL is recorded for the credit loss.

Subsequent valuations, in light of factors prevailing at that time, may result in significant changes in the values of these securities in future periods. Any of these factors could require us to recognize an ACL charge and any additional amount of loss due to non-credit factors could impact AOCI. A reduction in the value of our securities portfolio could have an adverse effect on our regulatory capital, financial condition or results of operations in future periods. In addition, deterioration or defaults made by issuers of the underlying collateral of our investment securities may cause additional credit-related charges to our consolidated financial statements.

During 2023, the net unrealized losses of our AFS investment securities decreased $14.0 million as a result of a decline in market interest rates, which increased total shareholders' equity. However, increases in interest rates and credit spread changes could result in additional unrealized losses on AFS investment securities. We consider the unrealized losses on the AFS securities to be related to fluctuations in market conditions, primarily interest rates, and not reflective of deterioration in credit. In addition, we maintain that we have the intent and ability to hold our AFS securities until the amortized cost is recovered. We did not record a cumulative-effect adjustment related to our AFS securities upon adoption of CECL on January 1, 2023.

Potential downgrades of U.S. government securities by one or more of the credit ratings agencies could have a material adverse effect on our operations, earnings and financial condition.

A possible future downgrade of the sovereign credit ratings of the U.S. government and a decline in the perceived creditworthiness of U.S. government-related obligations could impact our ability to obtain funding that is collateralized by affected instruments, as well as affect the pricing of that funding when it is available. A downgrade may also adversely affect the market value of such instruments. We cannot predict if, when or how any changes to the credit ratings or perceived creditworthiness of these organizations will affect economic conditions. Among other things, a downgrade in the U.S. government’s credit rating could adversely impact the value of our securities portfolio and may trigger requirements that we post additional collateral for trades relative to these securities. A downgrade of the sovereign credit ratings of the U.S. government or the credit ratings of related institutions, agencies or instruments could significantly exacerbate the other risks to which we are subject and could have related adverse effects on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Risks Related to Competition and to Our Business Strategy

Difficult economic and market conditions can adversely affect the financial services industry and may materially and adversely affect us.

Our operations are sensitive to general business and economic conditions in the U.S. If the growth of the U.S. economy slows, or if the economy worsens or enters a recession, our growth and profitability could be constrained. In addition, economic conditions in foreign countries can affect the stability of global financial markets, which could impact the U.S. economy and financial markets. Weak economic conditions, which could directly impact our operations, are characterized by inflation, fluctuations in debt and equity capital markets, including a lack of liquidity and/or depressed prices in the secondary market for mortgage loans, increased loan delinquencies, real estate price declines and lower home sales and commercial activity, and increased problem assets and foreclosures. All of these factors could be detrimental to our business. In addition, our business is significantly affected by monetary and related policies of the U.S. federal government, its agencies and government-sponsored entities. Changes in any of these policies could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial position, results of operations and cash flows.

Adverse developments affecting the financial services industry, such as actual events or concerns involving liquidity, defaults, or non-performance by financial institutions or transactional counterparties, could adversely affect our financial condition and results of operations.

Actual events involving limited liquidity, defaults, non-performance or other adverse developments that affect financial institutions, transactional counterparties or other companies in the financial services industry or the financial services industry generally, or concerns or rumors about any events of these kinds or other similar risks, have in the past and may in the future lead to market-wide liquidity problems. For example, on May 1, 2023, First Republic Bank went into receivership and its deposits and substantially all of its assets were acquired by JPMorgan Chase Bank, National Association. Similarly, on March 10, 2023, Silicon Valley Bank went into receivership, and on March 12, 2023, Signature Bank went into receivership.

Inflation and rapid increases in interest rates led to a decline in the trading value of previously issued government securities with interest rates below current market interest rates. The FRB announced a program to provide loans, secured by certain government securities, to FDIC-insured depository institutions and certain U.S. branches and agencies of foreign banks, to mitigate the risk of potential losses on the sale of such instruments. Currently, new advances with terms up to one year under the program can only be made through March 11, 2024. There is no guarantee that the Treasury, the FDIC and/or the FRB, as applicable, would take such actions in the future in the event of the closure of other banks or financial institutions, that they would do so in a timely fashion, or that such actions, if taken, would have their intended effect.

Because our business is concentrated in south central Pennsylvania, the greater Baltimore region, and Washington County, Maryland, our financial performance could be materially adversely affected by economic conditions and real estate values in these market areas.

Our operations and the properties securing our loans are primarily located in south central Pennsylvania, the greater Baltimore region, and Washington County, Maryland. Our operating results depend largely on economic conditions and real estate valuations in these and surrounding areas. A deterioration in economic conditions, increased unemployment, inflation, and a decline in real estate values in these market areas or other factors beyond our control could materially adversely affect our operations.

Inflationary pressures and rising prices may affect our results of operations and financial condition.

Inflationary pressures continued throughout 2023, and may remain in 2024. Small to medium-sized businesses may be impacted more during periods of high inflation as they are not able to leverage economies of scale to mitigate cost pressures compared to larger businesses. Consequently, the ability of our clients to repay their loans may deteriorate, and in some cases this deterioration may occur quickly, which would adversely impact our results of operations and financial condition. Furthermore, a prolonged period of inflation could cause wages and other costs to increase, which could adversely affect our results of operations and financial condition.

We face significant competition in the financial services industry.

We face significant competition in originating loans, attracting deposits and providing other financial services from financial and non-financial services firms, including traditional banks and credit unions, online banks, mortgage banking companies, wealth management companies, financial technology companies and others. Some of our competitors enjoy advantages, including greater financial resources and higher lending limits, more expansive marketing campaigns, better brand recognition, a wider geographic presence, more accessible branch office locations, the ability to offer a wider array of services or more favorable pricing alternatives, as well as lower origination and operating costs. Emerging technologies have the potential to intensify competition and accelerate disruption in the financial services industry. In recent years, non-financial services firms, such as financial technology companies, have been offering services traditionally provided by financial institutions. These firms use technology and mobile platforms to enhance the ability of companies and individuals to borrow, save and invest money. Our ability to compete successfully depends on a number of factors, including our ability to develop and execute strategic plans and initiatives; to develop competitive products and technologies; and to attract, retain and develop a highly skilled employee workforce. If we are not able to compete successfully, we could be placed at a competitive disadvantage, which could result in the loss of clients and market share, and our business, results of operations and financial condition could suffer.

Our business may be adversely affected if we fail to adapt our products and services to technological advances, evolving industry standards and consumer preferences.

The banking industry undergoes constant technological change with frequent introductions of new technology-driven products and services. The widespread adoption of new technologies, including internet services and payment systems, could require substantial expenditures to modify or adapt our existing products and services as we grow and develop our internet banking and mobile banking channel strategies in addition to remote connectivity solutions. We might not be successful in developing or introducing new products and services, integrating new products or services into our existing offerings, responding or adapting to changes in consumer behavior, preferences, spending, investing and/or saving habits, achieving market acceptance of our products and services, reducing costs in response to pressures to deliver products and services at lower prices or sufficiently developing and maintaining loyal clients. Our future success may depend, in part, on our ability to address the needs of our current and prospective clients by using technology to provide products and services that will satisfy demands for convenience, as well as to create additional efficiencies in operations.

Development of new products, services and technologies may impose additional costs on us and may expose us to increased operational risk.

The introduction of new products and services can involve significant time and resources, including to obtain regulatory approvals. Substantial risks and uncertainties are associated with the introduction of new products and services, including technical and control requirements that may need to be developed and implemented, rapid technological change in the industry, our ability to access technical and other information from our clients, the significant and ongoing investments required to bring new products and services to market in a timely manner at competitive prices and the preparation of marketing, sales and other materials that fully and accurately describe the product or service and its underlying risks. Our failure to manage these risks and uncertainties would also expose us to enhanced risk of operational lapses which may result in the recognition of financial statement liabilities. Regulatory and internal control requirements, capital requirements, competitive alternatives, vendor relationships and shifting market preferences may also determine if such initiatives can be brought to market in a manner that is timely and attractive to our clients. Products and services relying on internet and mobile technologies may expose us to fraud and cybersecurity risks. Implementation of certain new technologies, such as those related to artificial intelligence, automation and algorithms, may have unintended consequences due to their limitations, potential manipulation, or our failure to use them effectively. Failure to successfully manage these risks in the development and implementation of new products or services could have a material adverse effect on our business and reputation, as well as on our consolidated results of operations and financial condition.

We may incur significant losses as a result of ineffective risk management processes and strategies.

We seek to monitor and control our risk exposure through a risk and control framework encompassing a variety of separate but complementary financial, credit, operational, compliance, and legal reporting systems; internal controls; management review processes; and other mechanisms. While we employ a broad and diversified set of risk monitoring and risk mitigation techniques, those techniques and the judgments that accompany their application may not be effective and may not anticipate every economic and financial outcome in all market environments or the specifics and timing of such outcomes.

We face continuing and growing security risks to our information base, including the information we maintain relating to our clients.

In the ordinary course of business, we rely on electronic communications and information systems to conduct our business and to store sensitive data, including financial information regarding clients. Our electronic communications and information systems infrastructure, as well as the systems infrastructures of the vendors we use to meet our data processing and communication needs, could be susceptible to cyber-attacks, such as denial of service attacks, hacking, terrorist activities or identity theft. Financial services institutions and companies engaged in data processing have reported breaches in the security of their websites or other systems, some of which have involved sophisticated and targeted attacks intended to obtain unauthorized access to confidential information, destroy data, disable or degrade service or sabotage systems, often through the introduction of computer viruses or malware, cyber-attacks and other means. Denial of service attacks have been launched against a number of large financial services institutions. Hacking and identity theft risks, in particular, could cause serious reputational harm. Cyber threats are rapidly evolving and we may not be able to anticipate or prevent all such attacks. Although, to date we have not experienced any material losses relating to cyber-attacks or other information security breaches, there can be no assurance that we will not suffer such losses in the future. No matter how well designed or implemented our controls are, we will not be able to anticipate all security breaches of these types, and we may not be able to implement effective preventive measures against such security breaches in a timely manner. A failure or circumvention of our security systems could have a material adverse effect on our business operations and financial condition.

We regularly assess and test our security systems and disaster preparedness, including back-up systems, but the risks are substantially escalating. As a result, cybersecurity and the continued enhancement of our controls and processes to protect our systems, data and networks from attacks, unauthorized access or significant damage remain a priority. Accordingly, we may be required to expend additional resources to enhance our protective measures or to investigate and remediate any information security vulnerabilities or exposures. Any breach of our system security could result in disruption of our operations, unauthorized access to confidential client information, significant regulatory costs, litigation exposure and other possible damages, loss or liability. Such costs or losses could exceed the amount of available insurance coverage, if any, and would adversely affect our earnings. Also, any failure to prevent a security breach, or to quickly and effectively deal with such a breach, could negatively impact client confidence, damaging our reputation and undermining our ability to attract and keep clients.

We may not be able to successfully implement future information technology system enhancements, which could adversely affect our business operations and profitability.

We invest significant resources in information technology system enhancements in order to provide functionality and security at an appropriate level. We may not be able to successfully implement and integrate future system enhancements, which could adversely impact the ability to provide timely and accurate financial information in compliance with legal and regulatory requirements, which could negatively impact our growth and profitability and could result in regulatory scrutiny. In addition, future system enhancements could have higher than expected costs and/or result in operating inefficiencies, which could increase the costs associated with the implementation as well as ongoing operations.

Failure to properly utilize system enhancements that are implemented in the future could result in significant costs to remediate or replace the defective components, which would adversely impact our financial condition and results of operations. In addition, we may incur significant training, licensing, maintenance, consulting and amortization expenses during and after systems implementations, and any such costs may continue for an extended period of time.

We may become subject to claims and litigation pertaining to fiduciary responsibility.

We provide fiduciary services through OFA. From time to time, clients may make claims and take legal action with regard to the performance of our fiduciary responsibilities. Whether such claims and legal actions are founded or unfounded, if such claims or legal actions are not resolved in a manner favorable to us, the claims or related actions may result in significant financial expense and liability to us and/or adversely affect our reputation in the marketplace, as well as adversely impact client demand for our products and services. Any financial liability or reputation damage could have a material adverse effect on our business, which, in turn, could have a material adverse effect on our financial condition and results of operations.

Climate change may adversely affect our business and results of operations.

Current and anticipated effects of climate change could negatively impact us and our clients. Weather-related events, such as severe storms, hurricanes, flooding and droughts, can present risks to us and our clients, including property damage, change in the value of properties securing our loans, changes in client behavior and preferences, and disruption of business operations, all which can increase credit risk and result in loss of revenue and additional expenses. These concerns over the impacts of climate change have gained political and social attention resulting in many legislative and regulatory initiatives to lessen the effects of climate change, which also may result in heightened supervisory expectations on banks’ risk management practices. Ongoing legislative and regulatory uncertainties and expanded requirements for climate risk management practices may result in increases to compliance and operating costs, which could have a negative impact on our financial condition and results of operations.

Our business may be negatively impacted by risk associated with acquisitions.

We intend to pursue a growth plan consistent with our business strategy, including growth by acquisition, as well as leveraging our existing branch network. On December 12, 2023, we signed a definitive agreement for a "merger of equals transaction" with CVLY. We may wish to seek to acquire other companies in the future. Our business may be negatively impacted by certain risks inherent with the acquisition of CVLY or other future acquisitions. Some of these risks include the following:

• we may incur substantial expenses in pursuing acquisitions;
• management may divert its attention from other aspects of our business;
• we may assume potential and unknown liabilities of the acquired company;
• the acquired business may not perform in accordance with management's expectations, including potentially losing key clients of the acquired business;
• difficulties may arise in connection with the integration of the operations of the acquired business with our businesses; and
• we may lose key employees of the combined business.

Our ability to manage growth successfully will depend on our ability to attract qualified personnel and maintain cost controls and asset quality while attracting additional loans and deposits on favorable terms, as well as on factors beyond our control, such as economic conditions and competition. If we grow too quickly and are not able to attract qualified personnel, control costs and maintain asset quality, this continued rapid growth could materially adversely affect our financial performance.

Goodwill generated in acquisitions may negatively affect our financial condition.

To the extent that merger consideration, consisting of cash and shares of our common stock, exceeds the fair value of the net assets acquired, including identifiable intangibles, that amount will be reported as goodwill by us. In accordance with current accounting guidance, goodwill will not be amortized, but will be evaluated for impairment annually or more frequently as warranted by specific events or circumstances. A failure to realize the expected benefits of a merger could adversely impact the carrying value of the goodwill recognized in the merger and, in turn, negatively affect our financial results.

The market price of our common stock after acquisitions may be affected by factors different from those affecting our shares currently.

The businesses of us and acquired entities may differ and, accordingly, the results of operations of the combined company and the market price of the shares of common stock of the combined company may be affected by factors different from those currently affecting the independent results of operations and market prices of common stock of each separate entity. The market value of our common stock fluctuates based upon various factors, including changes in our business, operations or prospects, market assessments of the Merger, regulatory considerations, market and economic considerations, and other factors. Further, the market price of our common stock after an acquisition may be affected by factors different from those currently affecting our common stock. Additionally, future business acquisitions may result in the issuance and payment of additional shares of stock, which would dilute current shareholders’ ownership interests, and may involve the payment of a premium over book and market values. Therefore, dilution of our tangible book value and net income per common share could occur in connection with any future transaction.

Risks Related to Proposed Merger with CVLY

We may continue to incur substantial costs related to the Merger and integration of CVLY, and these costs may be greater than anticipated due to unexpected events.

We have incurred and expect to incur a number of non-recurring costs associated with the Merger. These costs include legal, financial advisory, accounting, consulting and other advisory fees, severance/employee benefit-related costs, public company filing fees and other regulatory fees, financial printing and other printing costs and other related costs. Some of these costs are payable regardless of whether the Merger is completed.

In addition, we expect to incur integration costs following the completion of the Merger, including facilities and systems consolidation costs and employment-related costs. We may also incur additional costs to maintain employee morale and to retain key employees. There are a large number of processes, policies, procedures, operations, technologies and systems that will need to be integrated, including purchasing, accounting and finance, payroll, compliance, treasury management, branch operations, vendor management, risk management, lines of business, pricing and benefits. While we have assumed that certain level of costs will be incurred, there are many factors beyond our control that could affect the total amount or the timing of the integration costs. Moreover, many of the costs that will be incurred are, by their nature, difficult to estimate accurately. These integration costs may result in the combined company taking charges against earnings following the completion of the Merger, and the amount and timing of such charges are uncertain at present. There can be no assurances that the expected benefits and efficiencies related to the Merger will be realized to offset these transaction and integration costs over time.

Failure to complete the Merger could negatively impact our business and results of operations.

If the Merger is not completed for any reason, there may be various adverse consequences and we may experience negative reactions from the financial markets and from their respective customers and employees. For example, our business may have been impacted adversely by the failure to pursue other beneficial opportunities due to the focus of management on the Merger, without realizing any of the anticipated benefits of completing the Merger. Additionally, if the merger agreement is terminated, the market price of our common stock could decline to the extent that current market prices reflect a market assumption that the Merger will be beneficial and will be completed. We also could be subject to litigation related to any failure to complete the Merger or to proceedings commenced against us to perform their respective obligations under the merger agreement. If the merger agreement is terminated under certain circumstances, we may be required to pay a termination fee of $8.3 million to the other party.

We are subject to business uncertainties and contractual restrictions while the Merger is pending.

Uncertainty about the effect of the Merger on employees and customers may have an adverse effect on our business. These uncertainties may impair our ability to attract, retain and motivate key personnel until the Merger is completed, and could cause customers and others who deal with us to seek to change existing business relationships. In addition, the merger agreement requires that we conduct our business in the ordinary course of business consistent with past practice and restricts us from taking certain actions prior to the effective time or termination of the merger agreement without CVLY's consent in writing. These restrictions may prevent us from pursuing attractive business opportunities that may arise prior to the completion of the Merger.

Combining with CVLY may be more difficult, costly or time-consuming than expected, and we may fail to realize the anticipated benefits of the Merger.

The proposed Merger is a transaction combining two financial institutions of relatively similar asset size. The success of the Merger will depend on, among other things, the ability to realize the anticipated cost savings. To realize the anticipated benefits and cost savings from the Merger, we and CVLY must successfully integrate and combine our businesses in a manner that permits those cost savings to be realized without adversely affecting current revenues and future growth. If we and CVLY are not able to successfully achieve these objectives, the anticipated benefits of the Merger may not be realized fully or at all or may take longer to realize than expected. In addition, the actual cost savings of the Merger could be less than anticipated, and integration may result in additional and unforeseen expenses.

An inability to realize the full extent of the anticipated benefits of the Merger and the other transactions contemplated by the merger agreement, as well as any delays encountered in the integration process, could have an adverse effect upon the revenues, levels of expenses and operating results of the combined company following the completion of the Merger, which may adversely affect the value of the common stock of the combined company following the completion of the Merger.

Our future results following the Merger may suffer if the combined company does not effectively manage its expanded operations.

Following the Merger, the size of our business following the completion of the Merger will increase beyond the current size of either our or CVLY's businesses. Our future success will depend, in part, upon our ability to manage this expanded business, which may pose challenges for management, including challenges related to the management and monitoring of new operations and associated increased costs and complexity. We may also face increased scrutiny from governmental authorities as a result of the increased size of our business. There can be no assurances that we will be successful or that we will realize the expected operating efficiencies, revenue enhancement or other benefits currently anticipated from the Merger.

Risks Related to Regulatory Compliance and Legal Matters

We operate in a highly regulated industry, and laws and regulations, or changes in them, could limit or restrict our activities and could have a material adverse effect on our operations.

We and our subsidiaries are subject to extensive state and federal regulation and supervision. Federal and state laws and regulations govern numerous matters affecting us, including changes in the ownership or control of banks and bank holding companies, maintenance of adequate capital and the financial condition of a financial institution, permissible types, amounts and terms of extensions of credit and investments, permissible non-banking activities, the level of reserves against deposits and restrictions on dividend payments. The FRB and the state banking regulators have the power to issue cease and desist orders to prevent or remedy unsafe or unsound practices or violations of law by banks subject to their regulation, and the FRB possesses similar powers with respect to bank holding companies. These and other restrictions limit the manner in which we and our subsidiaries may conduct business and obtain financing.

The laws, rules, regulations, and supervisory guidance and policies applicable to us are subject to regular modification and change. Such changes could, among other things, subject us to additional costs, including costs of compliance; limit the types of financial services and products we may offer; and/or increase the ability of non-banks to offer competing financial services and products. Failure to comply with laws, regulations, policies, or supervisory guidance could result in enforcement and other legal actions by federal or state authorities, including criminal and civil penalties, the loss of FDIC insurance, revocation of a banking charter, other sanctions by regulatory agencies, civil money penalties, and/or reputational damage, which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, and results of operations. See the "Supervision and Regulation" section of Item 1, "Business."

Altering our overdraft fee practices could materially adversely affect our fee income and results of operations.

Overdraft fee practices of banks have recently come under increased regulatory scrutiny and been the subject of litigation. This increased scrutiny and litigation have prompted many larger banks to reform their overdraft fee practices or cease charging overdraft fees altogether. Reforming, reducing or eliminating overdraft fees could materially adversely affect our fee income and results of operations. Pending or future legal proceeding, regarding our overdraft fee practices, may result in judgments, settlements, fines, penalties, defense costs, or other results adverse to us, which could materially adversely affect our business, financial condition or results of operations, or cause serious reputational harm to us.

Increases in FDIC insurance premiums may have a material adverse effect on our results of operations.

We are generally unable to control the amount of premiums that are required to be paid for FDIC insurance. Beginning with the first quarterly assessment period of 2023, the FDIC increased the initial base deposit insurance assessment rate by two basis points, which is intended to increase the Deposit Insurance Fund ("DIF") reserve ratio to 1.35%. In November 2023, the FDIC approved a final rule to implement a special assessment to recover the loss to the DIF associated with protecting uninsured deposits from bank events earlier in 2023. The FDIC will collect the special assessment beginning with the first quarterly assessment of 2024 and will continue to collect the special assessment for an estimated total of eight quarterly assessment periods. Banking institutions with total assets under $5.0 billion will be exempt from this special assessment, which is based on data from the December 31, 2022 reporting period. Although the FDIC has currently limited the special assessment in effect in the first quarter of 2024 to banking institutions with total assets greater than $5.0 billion, the Bank may be required to pay significantly higher premiums than the levels currently imposed, as well as additional special assessments or taxes, which could adversely affect earnings, as a result of bank or financial institution failures or other events. Any future increases or required prepayments in FDIC insurance premiums may materially adversely affect our results of operations.

Legislative, regulatory and legal developments involving income and other taxes could materially adversely affect our results of operations and cash flows.

We are subject to U.S. federal and U.S. state income, payroll, property, sales and use, and other types of taxes, including the Pennsylvania Bank Shares Tax. Significant judgment is required in determining our provisions for income taxes. Changes in tax rates, enactments of new tax laws, revisions of tax regulations, and claims or litigation with taxing authorities could result in substantially higher taxes, and therefore, could have a significant adverse effect on our results of operations, financial condition and liquidity. Increases in the assessment rate for the Pennsylvania Bank Shares Tax, which is calculated on the outstanding equity of the Bank, may also materially adversely affect our results of operations.

We are required to use judgment in applying accounting policies and different estimates and assumptions in the application of these policies could result in a decrease in capital and/or other material changes to the reports of financial condition and results of operations.

Material estimates that are particularly susceptible to significant change relate to the determination of the ACL, the fair value of certain financial instruments, particularly securities, and goodwill and purchase accounting. While we have identified those accounting policies that we consider critical and have procedures in place to facilitate the associated judgments, different assumptions in the application of these policies could have a material adverse effect on our financial condition and results of operations.

Changes in our accounting policies or in accounting standards could materially affect how we report our financial results and condition.

From time to time, the FASB, SEC and other regulatory bodies change the financial accounting and reporting standards that govern the preparation of our consolidated financial statements. These changes can be operationally complex to implement and can materially impact how we report our financial condition and results of operations.

We are subject to stringent capital requirements which may adversely impact return on equity, require additional capital raises, or limit the ability to pay dividends or repurchase shares.

Federal regulations establish minimum capital requirements for insured depository institutions, including minimum risk-based capital and leverage ratios, and define “capital” for calculating these ratios. The minimum capital requirements are: (i) a common equity Tier 1 capital ratio of 4.5%; (ii) a Tier 1 to risk-based assets capital ratio of 6%; (iii) a total capital ratio of 8%; and (iv) a Tier 1 leverage ratio of 4%. The regulations also establish a “capital conservation buffer” of 2.5%, which if complied with will result in the following minimum ratios: (i) a common equity Tier 1 capital ratio of 7.0%; (ii) a Tier 1 to risk-based assets capital ratio of 8.5%; and (iii) a total capital ratio of 10.5%. The application of these capital requirements could, among other things, require us to maintain higher capital, resulting in lower returns on equity, and we may be required to obtain additional capital or be subject to adverse regulatory actions, including limitations on our ability to pay dividends or repurchase shares, if we are unable to comply with such requirements.

The FRB may require us to commit capital resources to support the Bank.

Federal law requires that a holding company act as a source of financial and managerial strength to its subsidiary bank and to commit resources to support such subsidiary bank. Under the “source of strength” doctrine, the FRB may require a holding company to make capital injections into a troubled subsidiary bank and may charge the holding company with engaging in unsafe and unsound practices for failure to commit resources to a subsidiary bank. A capital injection may be required at times when the holding company may not have the resources to provide it and therefore may require the holding company to borrow the funds or raise capital on terms considered unfavorable to shareholders. Any loans by a holding company to its subsidiary bank are subordinate in right of payment to deposits and to certain other indebtedness of such subsidiary bank. In the event of a holding company’s bankruptcy, the bankruptcy trustee will assume any commitment by the holding company to a federal bank regulatory agency to maintain the capital of a subsidiary bank. Moreover, bankruptcy law provides that claims based on any such commitment will be entitled to a priority of payment over the claims of the institution’s general unsecured creditors, including the holders of its note obligations. Thus, any borrowing that must be done by us to make a required capital injection becomes more difficult and expensive and could have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We are subject to numerous laws designed to protect consumers, including the Community Reinvestment Act and fair lending laws, and failure to comply with these laws could lead to a wide variety of sanctions.

The Community Reinvestment Act, the Equal Credit Opportunity Act, the Fair Housing Act, and other fair lending laws and regulations impose community investment and nondiscriminatory lending requirements on financial institutions. The CFPB, the FRB, the Department of Justice and other federal agencies are responsible for enforcing these laws and regulations. A successful regulatory challenge to an institution’s performance under the Community Reinvestment Act, the Equal Credit Opportunity Act, the Fair Housing Act or other fair lending laws and regulations could result in a wide variety of sanctions, including damages and civil money penalties, injunctive relief, restrictions on mergers and acquisitions, restrictions on expansion and restrictions on entering new business lines. Private parties may also have the ability to challenge an institution’s performance under fair lending laws in private class action litigation. Such actions could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We may become subject to enforcement actions even though noncompliance was inadvertent or unintentional.

The financial services industry is subject to intense scrutiny from bank supervisors in the examination process and aggressive enforcement of federal and state regulations, particularly with respect to mortgage-related practices and other consumer compliance matters, and compliance with anti-money laundering, Bank Secrecy Act and Office of Foreign Assets Control regulations, and economic sanctions against certain foreign countries and nationals. Enforcement actions may be initiated for violations of laws and regulations and unsafe or unsound practices. We maintain systems and procedures designed to ensure that we comply with applicable laws and regulations; however, some legal/regulatory frameworks provide for the imposition of fines or penalties for noncompliance even though the noncompliance was inadvertent or unintentional and even though systems and procedures designed to ensure compliance were in place at the time. Failure to comply with these and other regulations, and supervisory expectations related thereto, may result in fines, penalties, lawsuits, regulatory sanctions, reputation damage, or restrictions on our business.

We face significant legal risks, both from regulatory investigations and proceedings and from private actions brought against us.

As a participant in the financial services industry, many aspects of our business involve substantial risk of legal liability. From time to time we are named as a defendant or are otherwise involved in various legal proceedings, including regulatory enforcement actions, class actions and other litigation or disputes with third parties. Litigation pending against us is described in Note 23, Contingencies, to the Consolidated Financial Statements under Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statement and Supplementary Data," of this Annual Report on Form 10-K. There is no assurance that regulatory enforcement actions or litigation with private parties will not increase in the future. Pending or future legal proceedings against us may result in judgments, settlements, fines, penalties, indemnification costs, defense costs, or other results adverse to us, which could materially adversely affect our business, financial condition or results of operations, or cause serious reputational harm to us.

Risks Related to Liquidity

We are subject to liquidity risk, which could negatively affect our funding levels.

Market conditions or other events could negatively affect our access to or the cost of funding, affecting our ongoing ability to accommodate liability maturities and deposit withdrawals, meet contractual obligations, or fund asset growth and new business initiatives at a reasonable cost, in a timely manner and without adverse consequences. Although we maintain a liquid asset portfolio and have implemented strategies to maintain sufficient and diverse sources of funding to accommodate planned, as well as unanticipated, changes in assets, liabilities, and off-balance sheet commitments under various economic conditions, a substantial, unexpected, or prolonged change in the level or cost of liquidity could have a material adverse effect on us. If the cost effectiveness or the availability of supply in these credit markets is reduced for a prolonged period of time, our funding needs may require us to access funding and manage liquidity by other means. These alternatives may include generating client deposits, securitizing or selling loans, extending the maturity of wholesale borrowings, borrowing under certain secured borrowing arrangements, using relationships developed with a variety of fixed income investors, and further managing loan growth and investment opportunities. These alternative means of funding may result in an increase to the overall cost of funds and may not be available under stressed conditions, which could cause us to liquidate a portion of our liquid asset portfolio to meet any funding needs. In the event additional liquidity is needed, we have access to liquidity from the FHLB, the FRB discount window and other sources. At December 31, 2023, we have combined borrowing capacity from the FHLB and FRB of approximately $1.0 billion. Accessing these sources of liquidity would impose additional borrowing costs on us.

Loss of deposits or a change in deposit mix could increase our cost of funding.

Deposits are a stable source of funding for which costs are typically lower than other financing options. We compete with banks and other financial institutions for deposits, as well as institutions offering uninsured investment alternatives, including money market funds and Treasury Bill alternatives. Our competitors may offer higher interest rates than we do, which could decrease the deposits that we attract or require us to increase our rates to retain existing deposits or obtain new deposits. Bank failures could negatively impact depositor confidence in us or the banking industry and cause our deposits to decline. Funding costs may increase if we lose deposits and are forced to replace them with more expensive sources of funding, if clients shift their deposits into higher cost products or if we need to raise interest rates to avoid losing deposits. Higher funding costs reduce our net interest margin and net income. Increased deposit competition could materially adversely affect our ability to fund lending operations. As a result, we may need to seek other sources of funds that could increase our cost of funds.

Wholesale funding sources may prove insufficient to replace deposits at maturity and support our operations and future growth.

We must maintain sufficient funds to respond to the needs of depositors and borrowers. To manage liquidity, we draw upon a number of funding sources in addition to core deposit growth and repayments and maturities of loans and investments. These sources may include Federal Home Loan Bank advances, proceeds from the sale of investments and loans, and liquidity resources at the holding company. Our ability to manage liquidity will be severely constrained if we are unable to maintain access to funding or if adequate financing is not available to accommodate future growth at acceptable costs. In addition, if we are required to rely more heavily on more expensive funding sources to support future growth, our revenues may not increase proportionately to cover our costs. In this case, operating margins and profitability would be adversely affected. Turbulence in the capital and credit markets may adversely affect our liquidity and financial condition and the willingness of certain counterparties and clients to do business with us. Our ability to borrow from other financial institutions or to access the debt or equity capital markets on favorable terms or at all could be adversely affected by disruptions in the capital markets or other events, including actions by rating agencies and deteriorating investor expectations.

The Parent Company is a holding company dependent on liquidity through payments, including dividends, from its bank subsidiary, which is subject to restrictions.

The Parent Company is a holding company, separate from the Bank, and must provide for its own liquidity. The Parent Company depends on dividends, distributions and other payments from the Bank to fund dividend payments and stock repurchases, if permitted, and to fund all payments on obligations. The FRB requires a BHC to act as a source of financial and managerial strength for its subsidiary banks. The FRB could require us to commit resources to the Bank when doing so is not otherwise in the interests of our shareholders or creditors. The Bank is subject to laws that restrict dividend payments or authorize regulatory bodies to prohibit or reduce the flow of funds from it to us. If the Bank is unable to pay dividends to us, we may not be able to service our debt, pay dividends on our common stock or engage in stock repurchases. A reduction or elimination of dividends could adversely affect the market price of our common stock and would adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects. In addition, our right to participate in a distribution of assets upon the Bank’s liquidation or reorganization is subject to the prior claims of the Bank’s creditors, including its depositors. Restrictions on the Bank’s ability to dividend funds to the Company are included in Note 17, Shareholders' Equity and Regulatory Capital, to the Consolidated Financial Statements under Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data."

Concerns about the soundness of other financial institutions could adversely affect us.

Our ability to engage in routine funding and other transactions could be adversely affected by the actions and commercial soundness of other financial institutions. Financial services institutions are interrelated as a result of trading, clearing, counterparty or other relationships. As a result, defaults by, or even rumors or questions about, one or more financial services institutions, or the financial services industry generally, have historically led to market-wide liquidity problems, losses of depositor, creditor and counterparty confidence and could lead to losses or defaults by us or by other institutions. While we did not have any direct exposure to the bank failures that occurred in 2023, the failures of those institutions led to extreme volatility in the prices of securities issued by financial institutions. Bank failures could negatively impact client and investor confidence in us, which could negatively impact our earnings, stock price or liquidity. We could experience increases in deposits and assets as a result of other banks’ difficulties or failure, which would increase the capital we are required to maintain to support such growth.

Risks Related to Owning Our Stock

If we want, or are compelled, to raise additional capital in the future, that capital may not be available when it is needed or on terms favorable to current shareholders.

Federal banking regulators require us to maintain adequate levels of capital to support our operations. These capital levels are determined and dictated by law, regulation and banking regulatory agencies. In addition, capital levels are also determined by our management and board of directors based on capital levels that they believe are necessary to support our business operations. Changes in our financial condition or results of operations, applicable accounting standards, laws and regulations and other factors could make it necessary or advisable for us to raise additional capital. Under such circumstances, our ability to raise additional capital will depend on conditions in the capital markets at that time, which are outside of our control, and on our financial performance. Accordingly, we cannot provide assurance of our ability to raise additional capital on terms and time frames acceptable to us or to raise additional capital at all. Additionally, the inability to raise capital in sufficient amounts may adversely affect our operations, financial condition and results of operations. Our ability to borrow could also be impaired by factors that are nonspecific to us, such as severe disruption of the financial markets or negative news and expectations about the prospects for the financial services industry as a whole. If we raise capital through the issuance of additional shares of our common stock or other securities, we would likely dilute the ownership interests of current investors by diluting earnings per share of our common stock and potentially diluting book value per share, depending on the issuance price. The price at which we issue additional shares of stock could be less than the current market price of our common stock. Furthermore, a capital raise through the issuance of additional shares may have an adverse impact on our stock price. In addition, a capital raise involving the issuance of debt securities could negatively impact our earnings and liquidity.

The market price of our common stock is subject to volatility.

The market price of our common stock has been subject to fluctuations in response to numerous factors, many of which are beyond our control. These factors include actual or anticipated variations in our operational results and cash flows, changes in financial estimates by securities analysts, trading volume, large purchases or sales of our common stock, market conditions within the banking industry, the general state of the securities markets and the market for stocks of financial institutions, as well as general economic conditions. The impact of the large bank failures on the price of securities issued by financial institutions, generally, is one example of a situation in which factors outside of our control can negatively impact the market price of our securities. In addition, if our common stock ceases to be included in the Russell 2000 index, which is reconstituted in June of each year, this could result in decreased liquidity in, and demand for, our common stock, which could cause the market price of our common stock to decline.

A reduction in our credit rating could adversely affect our access to capital and could increase our cost of funds.

A credit rating agency regularly evaluates the Parent Company and the Bank, and credit ratings are based on a number of factors, including our financial strength and ability to generate earnings, as well as factors not entirely within our control, including conditions affecting the financial services industry, the economy, and changes in rating methodologies. There can be no assurance that we will maintain our current credit ratings. A downgrade of the credit ratings of the Parent Company or the Bank could adversely affect our access to liquidity and capital, and could significantly increase our cost of funds, trigger additional collateral or funding requirements, and decrease the number of investors and counterparties willing to lend to us or purchase our securities. This could affect our growth, profitability, and financial condition, including liquidity.

General Risk Factors

We may not be able to attract and retain skilled people.

Competition for the best people in most activities engaged in by us can be intense, and we may not be able to attract and hire sufficiently skilled people to fill open and newly created positions or to retain current or future employees. This competition for talented, skilled and diverse employees has been intensified by the increase in remote and flexible work arrangements, wage pressures and opportunities in the labor market. An inability to attract and retain individuals with the necessary skills to fill open positions, or the unexpected loss of services of one or more of our key personnel, could have a material adverse impact on our business due to the loss of their skills, knowledge of our markets, years of industry experience or the difficulty of promptly finding qualified replacement personnel.

We believe that our continued growth and future success will depend in large part on the skills of our management team and our ability to motivate and retain these individuals and other key personnel. The loss of service of one or more of our executive officers or key personnel could delay or reduce our ability to successfully implement our long-term business strategy, our business could suffer, and the value of our stock could be materially adversely affected. Leadership changes will occur from time to time, and we cannot predict whether significant resignations will occur or whether we will be able to recruit additional qualified personnel. We believe our management team possesses valuable knowledge about the banking industry and that their knowledge and relationships could be very difficult to replicate. Our success also depends on the experience of our branch managers and lending officers and on their relationships with the clients and communities they serve. The loss of these key personnel could negatively impact our banking operations. The loss of key personnel, or the inability to recruit and retain qualified personnel in the future, could have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition, or operating results.

We could be adversely affected by a failure in our internal controls.

We rely on our employees to design, manage, and operate our systems and controls to assure that we properly enter into, record and manage processes, transactions and other relationships with clients, suppliers and other parties with whom we do business. In some cases, we rely on employees of third parties to perform these tasks. We also depend on employees and the systems and controls for which they are responsible to assure that we identify and mitigate the risks that are inherent in our relationships and activities. When we change processes or procedures, introduce new products or services, or implement new technologies, we may fail to adequately identify or manage operational risks resulting from such changes.

As a result of our reliance on employees, whether ours or those of third parties, we are subject to human vulnerabilities. These range from innocent human error to misconduct or malfeasance, potentially leading to operational breakdowns or other failures. Our controls may not be adequate to prevent problems resulting from human involvement in our business, including risks associated with the design, operation and monitoring of automated systems. Errors by our employees or others responsible for systems and controls on which we depend and any resulting failures of those systems and controls could result in significant harm to us. This could include client remediation costs, regulatory fines or penalties, litigation or enforcement actions, or limitations on our business activities. We could also suffer damage to our reputation, impacting our ability to attract and retain clients and employees.

Management regularly reviews and updates our internal controls, disclosure controls and procedures, and corporate governance policies and procedures. Any system of controls, however well-designed and operated, is based in part on certain assumptions and can provide only reasonable, not absolute, assurances that the objectives of the system are met. Any failure or circumvention of the controls and procedures or failure to comply with regulations related to controls and procedures could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations and financial condition.

Negative public opinion could damage our reputation and adversely affect our earnings.

Reputational risk, or the risk to our earnings and capital from negative public opinion, is inherent in our business. Negative public opinion can result from the actual or perceived manner in which we conduct our business activities, including banking operations and trust and investment operations, our management of actual or potential conflicts of interest and ethical issues, and our protection of confidential client information. Negative public opinion can also result from events occurring in the banking industry, such as bank failures, which are outside of our control. Negative public opinion can adversely affect our ability to keep and attract clients and can expose us to litigation and regulatory action. Although we take steps to minimize reputation risk in the way we conduct our business activities and deal with our clients, communities and vendors, these steps may not be effective. The proliferation of social media websites utilized by us and other third parties, as well as the personal use of social media by our employees and others, including personal blogs and social network profiles, also may increase the risk that negative, inappropriate or unauthorized information may be posted or released publicly that could harm our reputation or have other negative consequences, including as a result of our employees interacting with our clients in an unauthorized manner in various social media outlets. Any damage to our reputation could affect our ability to retain and develop the business relationships necessary to conduct business, which in turn could negatively impact our financial condition, results of operations, and the market price of our common stock.

Acts of terrorism, natural disasters, global climate change, pandemics, wars and global conflicts may have a negative impact on our business and operations.

Acts of terrorism, natural disasters, global climate change, pandemics, wars, global conflicts or other similar events could disrupt our operations, result in damage to our properties, reduce or destroy the value of the collateral for our loans and otherwise have a negative impact on our business and operations. While we have in place business continuity plans, such events could still damage our facilities, disrupt or delay the normal operations of our business (including communications and technology), result in harm to, or cause travel limitations on, our employees, and have a similar impact on our clients, suppliers, third-party vendors and counterparties. These events also could impact us negatively to the extent that they result in reduced capital markets activity, lower asset price levels, or disruptions in general economic activity in the U.S. or abroad, or in financial market settlement functions. In addition, these or similar events may impact economic growth negatively, which could have an adverse effect on our business and operations, and may have other adverse effects on us in ways that we are unable to predict.

Anti-takeover provisions could negatively impact our shareholders.

Provisions of Pennsylvania law and provisions of our articles of incorporation and bylaws could make it more difficult for a third party to acquire control of us or have the effect of discouraging a third party from attempting to acquire control of us, even if a merger might be in the best interest of our shareholders. Our articles of incorporation authorize our Board of Directors to issue preferred stock without shareholder approval and such preferred stock could be issued as a defensive measure in response to a takeover proposal. These and other provisions could make it more difficult for a third party to acquire us.

We use, store and process data for and about our customers and employees. We have implemented a cybersecurity risk management program that is designed to identify, assess, and mitigate risks from cybersecurity threats to this data and our systems.

Risk Management Oversight and Governance

Under the ultimate direction of our Chief Executive Officer and executive management team, our Information Security Core Committee has primary responsibility for overseeing our management of cybersecurity risks. This committee is chaired by our Chief Information Security Officer, or CISO, who reports directly to our Chief Risk Officer. Other members of the committee include representatives from Information Technology, Operations, Privacy, Compliance, BSA, Audit. Business Continuity, Vendor Management, Human Resources, Physical Security, Unified Fraud, Retail, Wealth Management, Lending, and Enterprise Risk Management.

Our CISO, working with his team and the Information Security Core Committee, has primary responsibility for assessing and managing our cybersecurity threat management program. He has more than 25 years of experience in building and leading information security teams and has worked at a technology start-up and a large, publicly-traded financial institution before joining the Company. His experience as a technology engineer has prepared him to lead a variety of teams, both large and small, design, implement and execute executive cyber and information security controls. He studied Computer Science at the University of Virginia and holds a Certified Information Systems Security Professional ("CISSP") certification.

In addition to frequent electronic communication, the committee meets monthly and more frequently, as circumstances warrant, to discuss and monitor prevention, detection, mitigation and remediation of risks from cybersecurity threats. When appropriate, meetings will also include our Chief Risk Officer, Chief Financial Officer, General Counsel and members of our disclosure committee. On a regular basis, the CISO also updates the executive management team on developments within the cybersecurity sphere.

The Board of Directors has delegated oversight of the Company’s cybersecurity program to the Enterprise Risk Management Committee of the Board of Directors. The Enterprise Risk Management Committee is responsible for reviewing reports on data management and security initiatives and significant existing and emerging cybersecurity risks, including cybersecurity incidents, the impact on the Company and its stakeholders of any significant cybersecurity incident and any disclosure obligations arising from any such incidents.

Our CISO meets quarterly with the Enterprise Risk Management Committee of the Board of Directors to discuss management’s ongoing cybersecurity risk management programs. He provides information about the sources and nature of risks the Company faces, how management assesses such risks – including in terms of likelihood and severity of impact, progress on vulnerability remediation and current developments in the cybersecurity landscape. This presentation is shared with the full Board of Directors to enable discussion of cybersecurity risk management at the full board level.

Processes for the Identification of Cybersecurity Threats

Under the guidance of the Information Security Core Committee and the CISO, we have adopted a cybersecurity risk management program that addresses, among other areas:

• Identification of assets at risk from cybersecurity threats;
• Identification of potential sources of cybersecurity threats;
• Assessment of the status of protections in place to prevent or mitigate cybersecurity threats; and
• Given that landscape, how to manage cybersecurity risks.

Our risk assessment and mitigation program is centered on three key components:

• Identification of risks, which involves input from different groups across the Company;
• Evaluation of the likelihood of the risks manifesting, the severity of the potential consequences and prioritization of different risk items based on, among other things, importance to the business and cost/benefit analysis to fully address; and
• Execution – establishment of a program to address.

Our information security team is responsible for monitoring our information systems for vulnerabilities and mitigating any issues. It works with other groups in the Company to understand the severity of the potential consequences of a cybersecurity incident and to make decisions about how to prioritize mitigation and other initiatives based on, among other things, materiality to the business. The information security team has processes designed to keep the Company apprised of the different threats in the cybersecurity landscape – this includes interacting with intelligence networks, working with researchers, discussions with peers at other companies, monitoring social media, reviewing government alerts and other news items and attending security conferences. The team also regularly monitors our internal network and out customer-facing network to identify security risks.

Our Internal Audit function updates the Enterprise Risk Management Committee of our Board of Directors on a quarterly basis about the Company’s enterprise risk management program. These reports are the culmination of a process that involves discussions with leaders across the Company and incorporates a multitude of enterprise risk factors, including cybersecurity threats. The Enterprise Risk Management Committee Chair, in turn, reports to the full Board of Directors a summary of the enterprise risk management presentation.

We have an employee education program that is designed to raise awareness of cybersecurity threats to reduce our vulnerability as well as to encourage consideration of cybersecurity risks across functions.

As part of the assessment of the protections we have in place to mitigate risks from cybersecurity threats, we engage third parties to conduct risk assessments on our systems. To assess the effectiveness of our program, we also have engaged consultants to conduct penetration testing and other vulnerability analyses. Over a cycle of several years, our Internal Audit function, with the assistance of outside technical advisors, will conduct an assessment of different systems to provide the Enterprise Risk Management Committee with information on our risk management processes, including cybersecurity risk.

Before purchasing third party technology or other solutions that involve exposure to the Company’s assets and electronic information, our information technology team requires those companies to complete a security review before being approved to work with the Company.

Our principal executive offices are located at 77 East King Street, Shippensburg, Pennsylvania, with additional executive and administrative offices at 4750 Lindle Road, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. These facilities are owned by the Bank, which also maintains its principal and additional executive and administrative offices at those locations.

We own or lease other premises for use in conducting our business activities, including bank branches, an operations center, and offices in Cumberland, Dauphin, Franklin, Lancaster, and Perry Counties, Pennsylvania and Anne Arundel, Baltimore, Howard, and Washington Counties, Maryland. We believe that the properties currently owned and leased are adequate for present levels of operation. We are constantly evaluating the best and most efficient mix of branch locations to service our clients due to evolving trends in our industry and increased client engagement through digital channels.

During the third quarter of 2022, the Company announced that five Pennsylvania branches would be closing and staffing model adjustments would be made to drive long-term growth and improve operating efficiencies in 2023 and forward. On December 23, 2022, the Bank announced that it had entered into a Purchase and Assumption Agreement providing for the sale of its Path Valley branch, one of the five branches scheduled to be closed, and the associated deposit liabilities. The transaction closed on May 12, 2023. The other four branches were closed on December 30, 2022.

Information regarding legal proceedings is included in Note 23, Contingencies, to the Consolidated Financial Statements under Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statement and Supplementary Data."

The following discussion and analysis is intended to assist readers in understanding the consolidated financial condition and results of operations of the Company and should be read in conjunction with our Consolidated Financial Statements and notes thereto included in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. Certain prior period amounts presented in this discussion and analysis have been reclassified to conform to current period classifications. These reclassifications did not have a material impact on the Company's consolidated financial condition, results of operations or statement of consolidated cash flows.

Overview

The Company, headquartered in Shippensburg, Pennsylvania, is a one-bank holding company that has elected status as a financial holding company. The consolidated financial information presented herein reflects the Company and its wholly-owned subsidiary, the Bank. At December 31, 2023, the Company had total assets of $3.1 billion, total liabilities of $2.8 billion and total shareholders' equity of $265.1 million as reported in the consolidated balance sheets.

The Company's primary source of income is net interest income, which is the difference between interest earned on its interest earning assets, such as loans and investment securities, and interest paid on its interest-bearing liabilities that includes deposits and borrowings. The Company's results of operations are impacted by economic conditions and market interest rates. Our profitability for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021 was primarily influenced by our continued organic growth and ongoing expansion into targeted markets and the rising interest rate environment.

On December 12, 2023, the Company entered into an agreement and plan to merge with Codorus Valley. For the year ended December 31, 2023, the Company incurred merger-related expenses of $1.1 million, which was included in non-interest expenses in the consolidated statements of income under Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplemental Data."

During 2022, the Company agreed to settle a litigation matter, which resulted in a provision for legal settlement ("legal settlement") of $13.0 million, before the tax effect, and the Company announced that five branch locations in Pennsylvania would be closing and staffing model adjustments would be made to drive long-term growth and improve operating efficiencies in 2023 and forward. As a result of these initiatives, the Company recorded a pre-tax restructuring charge of $3.2 million. Both the legal settlement and the restructuring charge were included in non-interest expenses in the consolidated statements of income under Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplemental Data."

Critical Accounting Estimates

The Company's consolidated financial statements are prepared in accordance with GAAP and follow general practices within the financial services industry. The most significant accounting policies followed by the Company are presented in Note 1, Summary of Significant Accounting Policies, to the Consolidated Financial Statements under Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data." In applying those accounting policies, the Company's management is required to exercise judgment in determining many of the methodologies, assumptions and estimates to be utilized. Certain of the critical accounting estimates are more dependent on such judgment and, in some cases, may contribute to volatility in our reported financial performance should the assumptions and estimates used change over time due to changes in circumstances. Some of the more significant areas in which the Company's management applies critical assumptions and estimates include the following:

Accounting for Credit Losses - Loans

The ACL represents the amount that, in management’s judgment, appropriately reflects credit losses inherent in the loan portfolio at the balance sheet date. A provision for credit losses is recorded to adjust the level of the ACL as determined by management. On January 1, 2023, the Company adopted ASU 2016-13, the current expected credit losses accounting standard commonly referred to as "CECL," which replaces the incurred loss model with the lifetime expected loss model. The CECL methodology requires an organization to measure all expected credit losses over the contractual term for financial assets measured at amortized cost based on historical credit loss experience, current conditions, and reasonable and supportable forecasts.

Determining the ACL inherently involves a high degree of subjectivity and requires the Company to make significant estimates of current credit risks and trends, all of which may undergo material changes, including expected probabilities of default, expected loss given default, the timing of expected future cash flows including the impact from unexpected changes in prepayment speeds, estimated losses based on historical credit loss experience and forecasted economic conditions. To the extent actual results differ from management's estimates, additional provisions for credit losses may be required that could adversely impact results of operations and regulatory capital in future periods.

The ACL is maintained at a level considered appropriate to absorb credit losses over the expected life of the loan. The ACL for expected credit losses is determined based on a quantitative assessment of two categories of loans: collectively evaluated loans and individually evaluated loans. In addition, the ACL also includes a qualitative component, which adjusts the CECL model results for risk factors that are not considered within the CECL model, but are relevant in assessing the expected credit losses within the loan classes.

The ACL on loans is measured on a collective basis when similar risk characteristics exist within the Company's loan segments between commercial and consumer. Each of these loan segments are broken down into multiple loan classes, which are characterized by loan type, collateral type, risk attributions and the manner in which management monitors the performance of the borrower. The risks associated with lending activities differ and are subject to the impact of changes in interest rates, market conditions, the collateral securing the loans, and general economic conditions.

The ACL for loans collectively evaluated is measured using a lifetime expected loss rate model that considers historical loss performance and past events in addition to forecasts of future economic conditions. Based on management's analysis, adjustments may be applied for additional factors impacting the risk of loss in the loan portfolio beyond the quantitatively calculated reserve on collectively evaluated loans. As the quantitative reserve calculation incorporates historical conditions, management may consider an additional or reduced reserve is warranted through qualitative risk factors based on current and expected conditions. Management uses the best available information to complete these evaluations; however, future adjustments to the ACL may be necessary if conditions significantly differ from the assumptions used in making the evaluations.

Utilizing a third-party vendor, the ACL for loans collectively evaluated is measured using a lifetime expected loss rate model under the vendor's neutral scenario that considers historical loss performance and past events in addition to forecasts of future economic conditions. The Company elected to use the discounted cash flow ("DCF") methodology for the quantitative analysis for the majority of its loan segments, which applies the probability of default to future cash flows, using a loss driver model and loss given default factors, and then adjusts to the net present value to derive the required reserve. The probability of default estimates are derived through the application of reasonable and supportable economic forecasts to the regression models, which incorporates the Company's and peer loss-rate data, unemployment rate and GDP and can be obtained from the Federal Reserve Economic Database. The reasonable and supportable forecasts of the selected economic metrics are then input into the regression model to calculate an expected default rate. The expected default rates are then applied to expected loan balances estimated through the consideration of contractual repayment terms and expected prepayments. The prepayment and curtailment assumptions adjust the contractual terms of the loan to arrive at the expected cash flows, which are obtained from the third-party vendor. The model incorporates an annualized prepayment rate and a twelve-month rate for curtailment based on a "statistical tendency to repay." Changes in the prepayment and curtailment speeds that vary from the current model inputs could result in an inaccurate of expected credit losses. The development and validation of credit models also included determining the length of the reasonable and supportable forecast and regression period and utilizing national peer group historical loss rates, which a four-quarter forecast period followed by a four-quarter straight-line reversion period were applied.

Management selected the national unemployment rate and GDP as the drivers of the quantitative portion of collectively evaluated reserves on loan classes reliant upon the DCF methodology, primarily as a result of high correlation coefficients identified in regression modeling, which represents a significant judgment in determining the ACL; however, changes in the macroeconomic forecast could significantly impact the calculated ACL. For the consumer loan segment, the quantitative reserve was calculated using the remaining life methodology where the average historical bank-specific and peer loss rates are applied to expected loan balances over an estimated remaining life of loans. The estimated remaining life is calculated using historical bank-specific loan attrition data.

See Note 1, Summary of Significant Accounting Policies, and Note 4, Loans and Allowance for Credit Losses, to the Consolidated Financial Statements under Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplemental Data," for details on the ACL evaluation.

Accounting for Income Taxes

The Company is subject to federal and state income taxes in the jurisdictions in which it operates. Due to the complexity of the tax laws, management may make judgments in computing income tax expense, which are subject to varying interpretations by management and the taxing authorities, and could result in changes upon final determination. Income tax expense is based upon income before taxes, adjusted for the effect of certain tax-exempt income, non-deductible expenses and credits. Temporary differences may occur as a result of certain income and expense items being reported in different periods for financial reporting and tax purposes. Deferred taxes are calculated, using the applicable enacted marginal tax rate, based on the differences between the tax basis and carrying value of the asset or liability on the financial statement. The Company recognizes, when applicable, interest and penalties related to unrecognized tax benefits in income tax expense in the consolidated statements of income. Under FASB ASC 740, Income Taxes, the Company must apply a more likely than not probability threshold on its tax positions before a financial statement benefit is recognized. A valuation allowance would be recognized if any deferred tax assets were determined to be more likely than not unrecoverable. See Note 8, Income Taxes, to the Consolidated Financial Statements under Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplemental Data," for details on our income tax expense and deferred tax assets and liabilities.

Readers of the Company's consolidated financial statements should be aware that the estimates and assumptions used may need to be updated in future financial presentations for changes in circumstances, business or economic conditions, in order to fairly represent the condition of the Company at that time.

Economic Climate, Inflation and Interest Rates

Preliminary real GDP for the fourth quarter of 2023 increased 3.2% on an annualized basis, which is a decline from 4.9% during the third quarter of 2023; however, it represents an improvement from the annualized increase of 2.7% during the fourth quarter of 2022. The preliminary GDP during the fourth quarter of 2023 reflected increases across multiple sectors including consumer spending and goods, residential fixed assets, exports, federal government spending and private inventory investment. The increase in consumer spending and goods was notable within food services, accommodations, health care, and pharmaceutical products. The increase in residential fixed assets was from new residential structures. Within exports, petroleum and recreational goods and vehicles were the leading factors. Compared to the third quarter of 2023, the offsetting factors resulting in deceleration in real GDP during the fourth quarter included slowdowns in consumer spending, residential fixed assets, private inventory investment and federal government spending. Fluctuation in real GDP in recent periods, due to inflation, credit conditions, supply chain challenges and geopolitical tensions, continues to create uncertainty in the current economic environment. The personal consumption expenditures ("PCE") price index increased by 1.9% in the fourth quarter of 2023, compared to an increase of 2.9% for the final estimate in the third quarter of 2023. Excluding food and energy prices, the PCE price index remained at 2.0% in the fourth quarter of 2023 as compared the third quarter of 2023.

The national unemployment rate was 3.7% in December 2023 compared to 3.8% in September 2023 and 3.5% in December 2022. However, within the Company's geographic footprint, the unemployment rate has decreased considerably in Pennsylvania from 4.3% in December 2022 to 3.5% in December 2023, and decreased in Maryland from 3.0% in December 2022 to 1.9% in December 2023. These decreases in state-wide unemployment rates are consistent with those experienced by the counties in which the Company operates branches and other corporate offices. There continued to be notable job gains nationally in healthcare, leisure and hospitality, professional, scientific and technical services, and government during the fourth quarter of 2023.

At both December 31, 2023 and 2022, the 10-year Treasury bond yield was 3.88%; however, it ranged from 3.30% to 4.98% during 2023 due to uncertain economic conditions and inflationary pressures. In an attempt to combat the impact of inflation, the rising consumer price index, supply chain disruptions, and labor market and geopolitical tensions, the FOMC approved increases to the Fed Funds rate totaling 525 basis points since March 2022 through the date of this report. In December of 2023, the FOMC signaled its intention to reduce interest rates in 2024, contingent upon inflation settling at its 2.0% target.

The majority of the assets and liabilities of a financial institution are monetary in nature and, therefore, differ greatly from most commercial and industrial companies that have significant investments in fixed assets or inventories. However, inflation does have an impact on the Company, particularly with respect to the growth of total assets and noninterest expenses, which tend to rise during periods of general inflation. Risks also exist due to supply and demand imbalances, employment shortages, the interest rate environment, and geopolitical tensions. It is reasonably foreseeable that estimates made in the financial statements could be materially and adversely impacted in the near term as a result of these conditions, including expected credit losses on loans and the fair value of financial instruments that are carried at fair value.

As the Company’s balance sheet consists primarily of financial instruments, interest income and interest expense are greatly influenced by the level of interest rates and the slope of the yield curve, as well as the mix of assets and funding. The Company has been able to grow its net interest income by $5.3 million from 2022 to 2023 due to organic commercial loan growth and rising interest rates, despite the decrease of $5.9 million in SBA PPP interest income from the prior year. Competition for quality lending opportunities and deposits remains intense, which, together with an inverted yield curve, will continue to challenge the Company's ability to grow its net interest margin and to manage its overhead expenses.

Beginning in March 2023, the banking industry experienced disruption from the failures of multiple regional U.S. banking institutions, each due to unique circumstances related to risk management of liquidity, interest, and capital and associated stress on deposits and unrealized losses on investment securities. These events led to a decline of confidence in the banking industry, which has since subsided, and overall economic uncertainty, which is expected to result in increased regulatory oversight and policymaking. The industry has experienced a significant increase in competition and pricing on deposits, which has driven funding costs higher. Although the Company was not materially impacted by these events during the year ended December 31, 2023, the Company has continued to assess its funding sources and analyze its liquidity position, interest rate sensitivity and capital adequacy, while also monitoring the ongoing events and volatility in the banking industry.

Results of Operations

Summary

Net income totaled $35.7 million, $22.0 million and $32.9 million for 2023, 2022 and 2021, respectively. Diluted earnings per share totaled $3.42, $2.06 and $2.96 for 2023, 2022 and 2021, respectively. Excluding merger-related expenses of $1.1 million, for the year ended December 31, 2023, net income totaled $36.6 million and diluted earnings per share totaled $3.51 compared to net income of $34.8 million and diluted earnings per share of $3.25 for the year ended December 31, 2022, excluding the legal settlement and restructuring expenses. See “Supplemental Reporting of Non-GAAP Measures.”

Net interest income totaled $104.9 million, $99.6 million and $87.0 million for 2023, 2022 and 2021, respectively. During 2023 and 2022, the increase in net interest income reflected the deployment of cash into higher yielding commercial loans and investment securities and the impact of the rising interest rates on interest-earning asset yields, partially offset by the impact of an increase in cost of funds and increases in interest-bearing liabilities. During 2021, net interest income benefited from the Company's expanded geographic footprint, organic growth in commercial loans from an increased sales force as the Company continued to take advantage of market opportunities, and SBA PPP interest income. For 2023, 2022 and 2021, interest income recognized on SBA PPP loans totaled $192 thousand, $6.1 million and $16.8 million, respectively.

The provision for credit losses on loans totaled $1.7 million, $4.2 million and $1.1 million in 2023, 2022 and 2021, respectively. During the first quarter of 2023, the Company adopted the new accounting standard for CECL, which resulted in the change from the incurred loss model based on historical loss experience to the expected loss model, which reflects the expected credit losses over the expected life of financial assets and commitments.

Noninterest income totaled $25.7 million, $27.0 million and $29.2 million for 2023, 2022 and 2021, respectively. The decrease of $1.3 million from 2022 to 2023 was primarily due to a decrease of $1.6 million in swap fee income, partially offset by an increase in mortgage banking activities of $184 thousand. The decrease in noninterest income of $2.2 million from 2021 to 2022 was primarily due to a decrease in mortgage banking activities of $5.5 million, which was partially offset by increases in swap fee income of $2.3 million and other income of $1.1 million. Other income in 2022 included realized gains on the Company's investment in a non-housing limited partnership of $1.1 million.

Noninterest expenses totaled $83.8 million, $95.8 million and $74.1 million for 2023, 2022 and 2021, respectively. The decrease of $12.0 million from 2022 to 2023 was primarily due to a legal settlement of $13.0 million and a restructuring charge of $3.2 million during 2022, partially offset by an increase of $3.0 million in salaries and employee benefits expense and merger-related expenses of $1.1 million during 2023. The increase of $21.7 million in non-interest expenses from 2021 to 2022 was due to the aforementioned legal settlement and restructuring charge and an increase of $4.0 million in salaries and employee benefits expenses.

Income tax expense totaled $9.4 million, $4.6 million and $8.0 million for 2023, 2022 and 2021, or an effective tax rate of 20.8%, 17.2% and 19.6% respectively. The Company’s effective tax rate is less than the 21% federal statutory rate due to tax-exempt income, including interest earned on tax-exempt loans and investment securities and income from life insurance policies and tax credits. The increase in the effective tax rate in 2023 was primarily due to an increase in taxable income compared to the prior year due to the legal settlement and restructuring charge in 2022. In addition, the effective tax rate increased in 2023 due to the portion of interest expense disallowed as a deduction against earnings under the Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982 ("TEFRA") and an increase in state taxes as a result of a greater percentage of taxable income earned in a state with a state income tax. The difference in the effective tax rate in 2022 from 2021 was primarily due to a decrease in taxable income resulting from the legal settlement and restructuring charge, an increase in tax-exempt interest income on loans and investment securities due to the higher interest rate environment, and additional tax credits.

Net Interest Income

Net interest income is the primary component of the Company's net income. Interest-earning assets include loans, investment securities and interest-bearing bank balances. Interest-bearing liabilities include primarily deposits and borrowed funds.

Net interest income is affected by changes in interest rates, the volume of interest-earning assets and interest-bearing liabilities, and the composition of those assets and liabilities. “Net interest spread” and “net interest margin” are two common statistics related to changes in net interest income. Net interest spread represents the difference between the yields earned on interest-earning assets and the rates paid for interest-bearing liabilities. Net interest margin is the ratio of net interest income to average earning asset balances.

The FRB influences the general market rates of interest, including the deposit and loan rates offered by many financial institutions. Starting in March 2022, the FOMC increased the Fed Fund rate by 425 basis points during 2022 and 100 basis points during 2023 as an attempt to combat the impact of inflation, the rising consumer price index, supply chain disruptions, the state of the labor market and geopolitical tensions.

Core deposits are deposits that are stable, lower cost and generally reprice more slowly than other deposits when interest rates change. Core deposits, which exclude certificates of deposit, are typically funds of local clients who also have a borrowing or other relationship with the Bank. The Company is primarily funded by core deposits, with noninterest-bearing demand deposits historically being a source of funds. During 2022, the lower-cost funding base had a positive impact on the Bank's net interest income and net interest margin in the rising interest rate environment. However, as the Fed Fund rate continued to increase, the competition for deposits also increased in the latter part of 2022 and continued throughout 2023 with clients utilizing their funds at a higher frequency and additional liquidity was needed to meet the demands of our clients. In addition, decreases in demand deposits and savings deposits were primarily due to clients shifting to higher-yielding products within the Bank, including time deposits with promotional offerings of up to 18-month terms. The Bank is currently liability sensitive as interest bearing liabilities are expected to reprice faster than interest earning assets.

The following table presents net interest income, net interest spread and net interest margin on a taxable-equivalent basis for 2023, 2022 and 2021. Taxable-equivalent adjustments are the result of increasing income from tax-exempt loans and investment securities by an amount equal to the taxes that would be paid if the income were fully taxable based on a 21% federal corporate tax rate for 2023, 2022 and 2021, reflecting our statutory tax rates for those years.

37

The following table presents changes in net interest income on a taxable-equivalent basis for 2023 and 2022 by rate and volume components.

2023 versus 2022

Net interest income increased by $5.3 million, or 5%, from $99.6 million in 2022 to $104.9 million in 2023. Similarly, net interest income on a taxable-equivalent basis for 2023 increased by $5.3 million, or 5%, compared with 2022. The Company’s net interest spread decreased by 31 basis points from 3.70% in 2022 to 3.39% in 2023 primarily due to the increase in the cost of funds.

Interest income on loans increased by $33.1 million, from $93.5 million in 2022 to $126.6 million in 2023, and interest income on investment securities increased by $7.1 million, from $14.4 million in 2022 to $21.5 million in 2023. Total interest expense increased by $36.0 million from $9.0 million in 2022 to $45.0 million in 2023. Interest expense on deposits increased by $31.2 million from $6.3 million in 2022 to $37.5 million in 2023, and interest expense on borrowed funds increased by $4.8 million to $2.6 million in 2022 to $7.4 million in 2023.

Taxable-equivalent net interest margin decreased by one basis point to 3.80% in 2023 from 3.81% in 2022. The taxable-equivalent yield on interest-earning assets increased by 125 basis points to 5.40% in 2023 from 4.15% in 2022, reflecting both the deployment of cash into higher yielding loans and investment securities and the impact of elevated interest rates on these interest-earning assets. The increase in yield was partially offset by an increase of 157 basis points in the cost of interest-bearing liabilities from 0.45% in 2022 to 2.02% in 2023 due to increased funding costs from higher market interest rates, competitive pressures and an increase in higher cost borrowings.

Average loans increased by $197.2 million from $2.0 billion during 2022 to $2.2 billion during 2023. Average investment securities increased by $10.9 million from $509.6 million in 2022 to $520.5 million during 2023 due to net investment purchases and a decrease in unrealized losses from 2022. Average interest-bearing liabilities increased by $241.3 million from $2.0 billion in 2022 to $2.2 billion during 2023. The competition for deposits increased in the latter part of 2022 and continued throughout 2023, which was coupled with clients utilizing their funds at a higher frequency. Therefore, additional liquidity was needed to meet demands of our clients, which resulted in an increase in higher cost borrowings.

The yield on loans increased by 109 basis points to 5.68% in 2023 from 4.59% in 2022. Taxable-equivalent interest income earned on loans increased by $33.3 million from $93.8 million in 2022 to $127.1 million in 2023 primarily due to an increase in the average balances of commercial, residential mortgage and home equity loans and from the impact of the rising rate environment. The increase in interest income from loan growth and higher rates was partially offset by a decrease in interest income from SBA PPP loans due to a lower amount of forgiveness activity during 2023 compared to 2022.

The average balance of commercial loans, excluding SBA PPP loans, increased by $211.9 million from $1.6 billion during 2022 to $1.8 billion during 2023. SBA PPP loans, net of deferred fees and costs, averaged $8.8 million during 2023, a decrease of $58.3 million from an average of $67.1 million in 2022. This decrease was due to forgiveness of SBA PPP loans since 2022. Average residential mortgage loans increased by $35.7 million from $211.0 million for 2022 to $246.7 million for 2023 due primarily to adjustable-rate and jumbo mortgage loans originated for the portfolio. Average home equity loans increased by $14.1 million from $175.5 million for 2022 to $189.6 million for 2023. Average installment and other consumer loans decreased by $6.3 million from $26.3 million for 2022 to $20.0 million for 2023.

For 2023, interest income on loans included $192 thousand of interest and net deferred fee income associated with the SBA PPP loans compared to $6.1 million for 2022. Accretion of purchase accounting adjustments included in interest income was $748 thousand during 2023 compared to $1.1 million in 2022. The decrease in accretion was due to a decline in accelerated accretion from acquired loan payoffs or significant payments from the prior year. During 2023, accelerated accretion was $269 thousand compared to $724 thousand in 2022. Prepayment income on commercial loans decreased from $1.0 million during 2022 to $826 thousand during 2023.

Interest income on investment securities on a tax-equivalent basis increased by $7.0 million to $22.4 million for 2023 from $15.4 million for 2022, with the taxable equivalent yield increasing by 128 basis points from 3.03% for 2022 to 4.31% for 2023. The increase reflects the impact from higher interest rates since March 2022 and the impact of investment security purchases at higher yields. The average balance of investment securities was impacted by purchases of $45.6 million and unrealized gains of $14.0 million, which were partially offset by investment security sales totaling $22.0 million during 2023.

The average balance of federal funds sold and interest-bearing bank balances decreased by $57.9 million from $98.8 million for 2022 to $40.9 million for 2023, due primarily to the deployment of cash into loans and investment securities. The related interest income increased by $1.0 million to $1.8 million for 2023 from $774 thousand for 2022. This increase was caused by 525 basis points of Fed Funds rate increases by the FOMC since March 2022.

Interest expense on deposits increased by $31.2 million from $6.3 million in 2022 to $37.5 million in 2023. The average balance of interest-bearing deposits increased by $141.4 million from $1.9 billion in 2022 to $2.1 billion 2023 and the cost of funds increased by 149 basis points from 0.33% in 2022 to 1.82% in 2023. Average time deposits increased $64.9 million in 2023, which the change in volume increased interest expense on time deposits by $401 thousand. The cost of time deposits increased by 233 basis points from 0.62% in 2022 to 2.95% in 2023 as clients sought higher-yielding products during the rising interest rate environment, including the Bank's promotional offerings for time deposits with terms up to 18-months. Average interest-bearing demand deposits increased by $111.0 million in 2023. Interest expense for interest-bearing demand deposits increased by $22.6 million, with the cost of funds increasing by 147 basis points from 0.30% in 2022 to 1.77% in 2023 as a result of deposit rate increases during 2023.

Interest expense on borrowings increased by $4.8 million to $7.4 million in 2023 from $2.6 million in 2022, as the cost of borrowings increased by 31 basis points from 4.01% in 2022 to 4.32% in 2023. Average borrowings increased by $108.0 million from $15.7 million in 2022 to $123.7 million in 2023, as the Bank opted to borrow funds to provide additional liquidity to meet the credit needs of its clients. On December 31, 2023, the Company's subordinated notes converted from a fixed rate at 6.0% to a floating rate of interest at 90-day average fallback SOFR rate plus 3.16%, or 8.78%.

2022 versus 2021

Net interest income increased by $12.6 million, or 15%, from $87.0 million in 2021 to $99.6 million in 2022. Net interest income for 2022 on a taxable-equivalent basis increased by $13.1 million, or 15%, compared with 2021. The Company’s net interest spread increased by 53 basis points from 3.17% in 2021 to 3.70% in 2022.

Interest income on loans increased by $9.3 million, from $84.2 million in 2021 to $93.5 million in 2022, and interest income on investment securities increased by $5.3 million, from $9.1 million in 2021 to $14.4 million in 2022. Total interest expense increased by $2.3 million from $6.7 million in 2021 to $9.0 million in 2022.

Taxable-equivalent net interest margin increased by 56 basis points to 3.81% in 2022 from 3.25% in 2021.The taxable-equivalent yield on interest-earning assets increased by 65 basis points to 4.15% in 2022 from 3.50% in 2021, which reflects the deployment of cash into higher yielding loans and investment securities, as well as the rising interest rates on the loans and investment securities portfolios, which were partially offset by the increase of 12 basis points in the cost of interest-bearing liabilities from 2021 to 2022. The cost of interest-bearing liabilities increased from 0.33% in 2021 to 0.45% in 2022 reflecting an increase to deposit rates due to the rising rate environment, partially offset by the runoff in higher cost time deposit balances. In 2021, the Company repaid its overnight borrowings, resulting in a decrease in interest expense.

Average loans increased by $57.1 million, and remained at $2.0 billion during 2022 and 2021, due to commercial and home equity loan growth, but was partially offset by the impact of SBA PPP loan forgiveness. Average investment securities increased by $47.6 million from $462.0 million in 2021 to $509.6 million during 2022 due to investment purchases. Average interest-bearing liabilities decreased by $61.0 million from $2.1 billion in 2021 to $2.0 billion during 2022 due primarily to a decrease in average balances in time deposits and overnight borrowings.

The yield on loans increased by 34 basis points to 4.59% in 2022 from 4.25% in 2021. Taxable-equivalent interest income earned on loans increased by $9.3 million, or 11%, year-over-year, primarily due to an increase in the average balances of commercial and home equity loans, excluding SBA PPP loans, and the impact of the rising rate environment. The increase in interest income from loan growth and higher rates was partially offset by a decrease in interest income from SBA PPP loans due to reduced fee income as a lower amount of SBA PPP loans were forgiven during 2022 compared to 2021.

The average balance of commercial loans, excluding SBA PPP loans, increased by $352.1 million from $1.2 billion during 2021 to $1.6 billion during 2022. SBA PPP loans, net of deferred fees and costs, averaged $67.1 million during 2022, a decrease of $299.7 million from an average of $366.8 million in 2021. This decrease was due to the forgiveness of SBA PPP loans since 2021. Average home equity loans increased by $19.1 million from $156.4 million for 2021 to $175.5 million for 2022. Average installment and other consumer loans decreased by $12.9 million from $39.2 million for 2021 to $26.3 million for 2022.

For 2022, interest income on loans included $6.1 million of interest and net deferred fee income associated with the SBA PPP loans compared to $16.8 million for 2021. Accretion of purchase accounting adjustments included in interest income was $1.1 million during 2022 compared to $1.7 million in 2021. The decrease in accretion was partially due to a decline from the prior year in accelerated accretion from acquired loan payoffs or significant payments. During 2022, accelerated accretion was $724 thousand compared to $1.1 million in 2021. Prepayment income on commercial loans increased slightly by $109 thousand to $1.0 million during 2022 from $926 thousand in 2021.

Interest income on investment securities on a tax-equivalent basis increased by $5.6 million to $15.4 million for 2022 from $9.8 million for 2021, with the taxable equivalent yield increasing by 91 basis points from 2.12% for 2021 to 3.03% for 2022. The increase reflects the impact from higher interest rates in 2022 and investment security purchases at higher yields. The purchases of $181.5 million were partially offset by investment security sales totaling $31.3 million and unrealized losses of $55.2 million during 2022.

The average balance of federal funds sold and interest-bearing bank balances decreased by $160.0 million from $258.8 million for 2021 to $98.8 million for 2022, due primarily to the deployment of cash into loans and investment securities. The related interest income increased by $421 thousand to $774 thousand for 2022 from $353 thousand for 2021. This increase was caused by the increase in the interest rate at the FRB as a result of multiple Fed Funds rate increases by the FOMC during 2022.

Interest expense on interest-bearing liabilities increased by $2.3 million year-over-year due to the increase in the cost of interest-bearing liabilities by 12 basis points from 0.33% for 2021 to 0.45% for 2022. This increase is due to deposit rate increases made in 2022, partially offset by the impact of a decrease in the average balance of interest-bearing deposits of $61.0 million that resulted from continued runoff of certificates of deposit and the zero balance in overnight borrowings for the majority of 2022 following repayment of overnight borrowings in the third quarter of 2021.

The average balance of interest-bearing deposits decreased by $35.5 million from $2.0 billion in 2021 to $1.9 billion 2022; however, the cost of funds increased by 12 basis points from 0.21% in 2021 to 0.33% in 2022. Average time deposits decreased $87.0 million, or 24%, in 2022, which decrease in volume reduced interest expense on time deposits by $654 thousand. The cost of time deposits declined by 13 basis points from 0.75% in 2021 to 0.62% in 2022 as higher yielding time deposits matured. Average interest-bearing demand deposits increased by $21.2 million in 2022. Interest expense for interest-bearing demand deposits increased by $3.0 million, with the cost of funds increasing from 0.09% in 2021 to 0.30% in 2022 as a result of deposit rate increases during 2022.

Interest expense on borrowings increased by $164 thousand in 2022 from 2021, despite the decrease of $24.9 million in the average balance of FHLB advances from $40.6 million in 2021 to $15.7 million in 2022. This was due primarily to the increase in interest rates on overnight borrowings during the fourth quarter of 2022.

Provision for Credit Losses

The Company recorded a provision for credit losses of $1.7 million, $4.2 million and $1.1 million in 2023, 2022 and 2021, respectively. On January 1, 2023, the Company adopted the new accounting standard, referred to as CECL, which transitioned from the incurred loss model based on historical loss experience and economic and market conditions to the expected loss model. The CECL standard reflects expected credit losses over the expected life of the financial assets and commitments, primarily based on the DCF methodology for the majority of the loan segments, which applies the probability of default and loss given default factors to future cash flows, and adjusts to the net present value to derive the required reserve. Macroeconomic conditions are incorporated into the model for unemployment and gross domestic product, in addition to model assumptions for discount rate and prepayment and curtailment speeds.

In 2023, 2022 and 2021, the provision for credit losses was driven primarily by increases in commercial loans, excluding SBA PPP loan forgiveness activity, of $118.3 million, $299.9 million and $268.4 million, respectively, in addition to the overall increase in expected loss rates under CECL. The ACL to total loan ratio increased from 1.17% at December 31, 2022 to 1.25% at December 31, 2023, which is primarily due to the cumulative effect adjustment of $2.4 million recorded in connection with the adoption of CECL. During 2023, the Delinquency and Classified Loan Trends qualitative factor was increased for the commercial & industrial and owner-occupied commercial real estate loan classes, which was based on a trend of increases in loans downgraded to the special mention or classified risk rating. All other qualitative factors were unchanged from levels at adoption of CECL. During 2022, qualitative factors were unchanged, except for a reduction in the National and Local Economic Conditions factor, that reduced the provision by $726 thousand. The provision for loan losses during 2021 included a reversal of the COVID-19 qualitative reserve of $2.7 million, which was created in 2020 due to the potential impact from the COVID-19 pandemic. This reserve was fully reversed in 2021 based on the sustained performance of the impacted borrowers resulting in a decline in the provision for loan losses in 2021 compared to 2020.

Net charge-offs totaled $581 thousand in 2023, compared to net charge-offs of $162 thousand in 2022. The increase in net charge-offs was due primarily to three commercial and industrial relationships with partial charge-offs totaling $740 thousand during 2023, partially offset by the impact of recoveries. Nonaccrual loans were 1.11% of gross loans at December 31, 2023, compared with 0.96% of gross loans at December 31, 2022. Nonaccrual loans increased by $4.9 million from $20.6 million at December 31, 2022 to $25.5 million at December 31, 2023 due primarily to additions of $8.5 million and transfers to non-accrual of $931 thousand due to the treatment of PCD loans at the individual asset level under CECL, partially offset by payments of $3.6 million, charge-offs of $909 thousand and loans returned to accrual status of $401 thousand.

See further discussion in the “Asset Quality” and “Credit Risk Management” sections of this Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations.

Noninterest Income

The following table compares noninterest income for 2023, 2022 and 2021.

41

2023 versus 2022

Noninterest income decreased by $1.3 million from 2022 to 2023. The following were significant factors in the net decrease:

• Other service charges, commissions and fees increased by $129 thousand, or 16%, due primarily to increases of $58 thousand in credit card fee income and $51 thousand in loan fees charged to clients for loan workout and forbearance agreements.
• Swap fee income decreased by $1.6 million, or 61%, as swap fee income will fluctuate based on market conditions and client demand.
• Mortgage banking income increased by $184 thousand, or 45%, from 2022 to 2023 due to a decline in the fair value losses on the Bank's held-for-sale loans caused by a significant increase in mortgage interest rates during 2022 compared to the fluctuation during the current year. The fair value mark declined $323 thousand in 2023 compared to a decrease of $1.3 million in 2022. However, market conditions and elevated interest rates continued to hinder mortgage production during 2023. Most mortgage production remains in adjustable-rate products, which are held in portfolio, and thus have resulted in a reduction in the residential mortgage loan pipeline and secondary market sales. Mortgage loans sold totaled $23.8 million during 2023 compared to $76.2 million during 2022.
• Other income decreased by $306 thousand, or 17%, from 2022 to 2023 primarily due to distribution of $964 thousand from investments in non-housing limited partnerships, gains on the sales of two SBA loans totaling $306 thousand and tax credits of $102 thousand recognized from the Bank's investment in solar energy renewable energy partnerships during 2022, partially offset by a gain of $1.1 million from the sale of the Bank's Path Valley branch during 2023.
• Investment securities losses declined by $113 thousand due primarily to a loss of $171 thousand during 2022 recorded on one non-agency CMO security, which was called at a price below par. During 2023, the Company sold three U.S. Treasury securities with a principal balance of $19.9 million for a nominal gain and six securities issued by state and political subdivisions with a principal balance of $2.2 million for a net loss of $44 thousand. During the year ended December 31, 2022, the Company sold 19 securities with a principal balance of $31.3 million for a net gain of $32 thousand.

2022 versus 2021

Noninterest income decreased by $2.2 million from 2021 to 2022. The following were significant factors in the net decrease:

• Service charges on deposit accounts increased by $779 thousand, or 26%, due to higher customer transaction activity as the economy continued to recover from the COVID-19 pandemic during 2022 and changes to the deposit fee structure that took effect in April 2022.
• Other service charges, commissions and fees increased by $142 thousand, or 22%, due primarily to increases of $49 thousand in letters of credit fees, ATM fees of $41 thousand and credit card fee income of $38 thousand.
• Swap fee income increased by $2.3 million, or 798%, which fluctuates based on market conditions and client demand.
• Mortgage banking income decreased by $5.5 million, or 93%, from 2021 to 2022 due to a significant decline in the gains on sale and fair value of the held-for-sale mortgages caused by market conditions, which included rapidly rising interest rates and lower housing inventory during 2022. In addition, the difficult mortgage market caused a slowdown in residential mortgage loan production, thereby causing corresponding reductions in the residential mortgage loan pipeline and secondary market sales year-over-year. The fair value on the held-for-sale mortgages, principally construction-to-permanent loans, decreased by $1.3 million from a gain of $181 thousand in 2021 to a loss of $1.2 million in 2022. Mortgage loans sold totaled $76.2 million in 2022 compared to $200.8 million in 2021. In addition, the Company recorded an MSR valuation reserve reversal of $79 thousand during 2022 compared to a reversal of $987 thousand in 2021, which were due to increases in market rates.
• Other income increased by $1.1 million, or 142%, from 2021 to 2022 primarily due to distributions of $964 thousand from investments in non-housing limited partnerships and an increase in gains on sale of SBA loans of $283 thousand, partially offset by a decrease of $128 thousand in tax credits recognized from the Bank's investment in solar energy renewable energy partnerships.
• Investment securities losses totaled $160 thousand in 2022 compared to investment securities gains of $638 thousand in 2021. During 2022, the Company recorded a loss of $171 thousand on one non-agency CMO security which was called at a price below par. This realized loss was partially offset by the sale of $31.3 million of municipal securities, which resulted in a gain of $32 thousand. During 2021, the Company sold $148.4 million of commercial mortgage-backed securities and asset-backed securities for a net gain of $609 thousand.

Noninterest Expenses

The following table compares noninterest expenses for 2023, 2022 and 2021.

2023 versus 2022

Noninterest expenses decreased by $12.0 million from 2022 to 2023. The following were significant factors in the net decrease:

• Salaries and employee benefits expense increased by $3.0 million, or 6%, due primarily to staff additions that filled vacancies, merit-based and incentive compensation increases, higher employee benefit costs from increased claims volume and employee severance costs.
• Occupancy expense decreased by $387 thousand, or 8%, due primarily to operating efficiencies from branch closures in 2022.
• Data processing expense increased by $353 thousand, or 8%, due primarily to an increase in core system costs and investments in new technology as the Company focused on the evolving needs of its clients.
• FDIC insurance expense increased by $877 thousand, or 81%, due to increases in the assessment rate caused by an annualized two-basis point increase assessed by the FDIC to increase its deposit insurance fund and increases commercial loans and total assets.
• Professional services decreased by $349 thousand, or 11%, due primarily to a reduction in legal expenses following the settlement of outstanding litigation.
• Taxes other than income decreased by $341 thousand, or 25%, due to a decrease in the Pennsylvania Bank Shares Tax expense, which was driven by a decrease in the Bank's total equity balance from the increase in unrealized losses on investment securities and charges in the third quarter of 2022 for a legal settlement and restructuring expenses.
• Intangible asset amortization decreased by $152 thousand, or 14%, due to amortization of the core deposit intangible assets on an accelerated basis.
• During the fourth quarter of 2023, the Company announced it entered into an agreement to merge with Codorus Valley. Merger-related expenses totaled $1.1 million, which included due diligence costs, legal expenses and a fairness opinion.
• The Company agreed to settle a litigation matter, which resulted in a provision for legal settlement of $13.0 million recorded in the third quarter of 2022.
• During the third quarter of 2022, the Company announced that five branch locations would be closing and staffing model adjustments would be made to drive long-term growth and improve operating efficiencies in 2023 and forward. As a result of these initiatives, the Company recorded a restructuring charge of $3.2 million.

2022 versus 2021

Noninterest expenses increased by $21.7 million from 2021 to 2022. The following were significant factors within the net increase:

• Salaries and employee benefit expense increased by $4.0 million, or 9%, due primarily to merit-based and incentive compensation increases, the filling of several vacancies in key positions and higher healthcare costs.
• Data processing expense increased by $499 thousand, or 12%, due primarily to an increase in core system costs and investments in new technology as the Company focuses on the evolving needs of its clients.
• FDIC insurance expense increased by $267 thousand, or 33%, due primarily to an increase in the assessment rate driven by commercial loan growth and a lower deduction from SBA PPP loans due to loan forgiveness.
• Professional services increased by $699 thousand, or 27%, due primarily to an increase in compliance and technology consulting services resulting from vacancies in compliance and technology staff and higher legal expenses partially associated with outstanding litigation.
• Intangible asset amortization decreased by $170 thousand, or 13%, due to amortization of the core deposit intangible assets on an accelerated basis.
• During 2022, the Company agreed to settle a litigation matter, which resulted in a provision for legal settlement of $13.0 million. There were no similar charges in 2021.
• During 2022, the Company announced that five branch locations would be closing and staffing model adjustments would be made to drive long-term growth and improve operating efficiencies in 2023 and forward. As a result of these initiatives, the Company recorded a pre-tax restructuring charge of $3.2 million. There were no similar charges in 2021.

Income Taxes

Income tax expense totaled $9.4 million, $4.6 million and $8.0 million for 2023, 2022 and 2021, respectively. The effective tax rate for 2023 was 20.8% compared with 17.2% for 2022 and 19.6% for 2021. Generally, the Company’s effective tax rate is less than the 21% federal statutory rate due to tax-exempt income, including interest earned on tax-exempt loans and investment securities, income from life insurance policies and tax credits, partially offset by disallowed interest expense and state income taxes. The difference in the effective tax rate in 2023 from prior years was primarily due to an increase in taxable income resulting from the legal settlement and restructuring charge in 2022. In addition, the effective tax rate was increased by the portion of interest expense disallowed as a deduction against earnings under the TEFRA and an increase in state taxes as a result of a greater percentage of taxable income earned in a state with a state income tax.

Note 8, Income Taxes, to the Consolidated Financial Statements under Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data," includes a reconciliation of our federal statutory tax rate to the Company's effective tax rate, which is a meaningful comparison between years and measures income tax expense as a percentage of pretax income.

Financial Condition

Management devotes substantial time to overseeing the investment in and costs to fund loans and investment securities through deposits and borrowings as well as the formulation and adherence to policies directed toward enhancing profitability and managing the risks associated with these investments.

Investment Securities

The Company utilizes AFS securities to manage interest rate risk, to enhance income through interest and dividend income, and to collateralize certain deposits and borrowings. The AFS securities may also serve as a liquidity source as needed.

The Company has established investment policies and an asset management policy to assist in administering its investment portfolio. Decisions to purchase or sell these securities are based on economic conditions and management’s strategy to respond to changes in interest rates, liquidity, pledges to secure deposits and repurchase agreements and other factors while trying to maximize return on the investments. The Company may segregate its investment portfolio into three categories: “securities held-to-maturity,” “trading securities” and “securities available-for-sale.” At December 31, 2023 and 2022, management has classified the entire investment securities portfolio as AFS, which is accounted for at current market value with non-credit losses and gains reported in OCI, net of income taxes. On January 1, 2023, the Company adopted the new CECL standard in accordance with ASU 2016-13, which changed the accounting framework by replacing the OTTI assessment with the recognition of an ACL.

The Company's investment securities portfolio includes debt investments that are subject to varying degrees of credit and market risks, which arise from general market conditions, and factors impacting specific industries, as well as news that may impact specific issues. Management monitors its debt securities, using various indicators in determining whether unrealized losses on debit securities are credit-related and require an ACL. These indicators include the amount of time the security has been in an unrealized loss position, the cause and extent of the unrealized loss and the credit quality of the issuer and underlying assets. In addition, management assesses whether it is likely the Company will have to sell the security prior to recovery, or it expects to be able to hold the security until the price recovers. The Company determined that the declines in market value were due to increases in interest rates and market movements, and not due to credit factors. The Company does not intend to sell these securities with unrealized losses and it is more likely than not that the Company will not be required to sell them before recovery of their amortized cost basis, which may be maturity. Therefore, the Company has concluded that the unrealized losses on the AFS securities do not require an ACL at December 31, 2023. Under the prior OTTI framework, the Company did not record any cumulative OTTI expense at December 31, 2022 and 2021.

The following table summarizes the fair value of AFS securities at December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021.

At December 31, 2023, AFS securities totaled $513.5 million, a decrease of $209 thousand, from $513.7 million at December 31, 2022. During 2023, the Company purchased investment securities totaling $45.6 million, which included $19.8 million of U.S. Treasury securities, $15.3 million of agency MBS and CMO securities, $8.9 million of non-agency CMO securities and $972 thousand in asset-backed securities. During 2023, the Company sold three U.S. Treasury securities with a total principal balance of $19.9 million for a nominal gain and six securities issued by state and political subdivisions with a total principal balance of $2.2 million for a net loss of $44 thousand. The sale of the securities issued by state and political subdivisions in net unrealized loss position was to redeploy funds from the lower yielding investment securities to higher yielding assets. The balance of investment securities included net unrealized losses of $35.6 million at December 31, 2023 compared to net unrealized losses of $49.6 million at December 31, 2022 for a reduction in unrealized losses of $14.0 million. The decrease in net unrealized losses was primarily due to lower treasury rates and contracting credit spreads during 2023 compared to 2022. The Company has sufficient access to liquidity such that management does not believe it would be necessary to sell any of its investment securities at a loss to offset any unexpected deposit outflows. Management believes the structure of the Company's investment securities portfolio is appropriately aligned with the remainder of the balance sheet to protect against volatile interest rate environments and to generate steady earnings.

At December 31, 2022, AFS securities totaled $513.7 million, an increase of $41.3 million, from $472.4 million at December 31, 2021. During 2022, the Company purchased investment securities totaling $181.5 million, which included $73.7 million of municipal securities, $47.5 million of agency MBS and CMO securities, $27.9 million of non-agency CMO securities, $27.6 million of asset-backed securities and $4.9 million of a U.S. government agency security. During 2022, the Company sold 19 municipal securities with a principal balance of $31.3 million for a net gain of $32 thousand and replaced with the aforementioned higher yielding investment securities. The Company recorded a loss of $171 thousand on a call of a non-agency CMO for the year ended December 31, 2022. The balance of investment securities included net unrealized losses of $49.6 million compared to net unrealized gains of $5.6 million at December 31, 2021. This change was due to significant increases in market interest rates and wider credit spreads.

The following table shows the maturities of investment securities at book value at December 31, 2023, and weighted average yields of such investment securities. Yields are shown on a tax equivalent basis, assuming a 21% federal income tax rate.

The average maturity is based on the contractual terms of the debt or mortgage-backed securities, and does not factor in required repayments or anticipated prepayments. At December 31, 2023, the weighted average estimated life is 33 years for mortgage-backed and CMO securities, and 21 years for asset-backed securities, based on current interest rates and anticipated prepayment speeds. The overall duration of the Company's investment security portfolio is 4.3 years at December 31, 2023.

The following table summarizes the credit ratings and collateral associated with the Company's AFS investment securities portfolio, excluding equity securities, at December 31, 2023:

Loan Portfolio

The Company offers a variety of products to meet the credit needs of its borrowers, principally commercial real estate loans, commercial and industrial loans, retail loans secured by residential properties, and to a lesser extent, installment loans. No loans are extended to non-domestic borrowers or governments.

Generally, the Bank is permitted under applicable law to make loans to single borrowers (including certain related persons and entities) in aggregate amounts of up to 15% of the sum of total capital and excess ACL not included in Tier 2 capital. The Company's policy has established an internal lending limit of $25.0 million to one borrower, except for commercial real estate loans, which the Company reduced the internal lending limit to $15.0 million on a per project basis beginning in 2023. Credit exposure may be aggregated if loans are under common control or ownership or with common guarantors, for which the internal lending limit is $40.0 million, but not permitted to exceed the regulatory lending limit. These amounts are below the Bank's regulatory lending limit of $47.5 million at December 31, 2023. No borrower had an outstanding exposure exceeding the Bank's legal lending limit at year-end.

The risks associated with lending activities differ among loan segments and classes and are subject to the impact of changes in interest rates, market conditions of collateral securing the loans and general economic conditions. Any of these factors may adversely impact a borrower’s ability to repay loans, and also impact the associated collateral. A further discussion on the Company's loan segments and classes and related risks and the Company's implementation of the new account standard for expected credit losses, referred to as CECL, and FDM are included in Note 1, Summary of Significant Accounting Policies, and Note 4, Loans and Allowance for Credit Losses, to the Consolidated Financial Statements under Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data."

The following table presents the loan portfolio, excluding residential LHFS, by segments and classes at December 31 of each of the years set forth below.

(1) Includes $5.7 million, $13.8 million, $189.9 million, $403.3 million and zero of SBA PPP loans, net of deferred fees and costs, as of December 31, 2023, 2022, 2021, 2020 and 2019, respectively.

Total loans increased by $147.1 million to $2.3 billion at December 31, 2023 from $2.2 billion at December 31, 2022. The increase was due to growth in the commercial real estate loan segment of $146.9 million, residential mortgages of $39.2 million and commercial and industrial loans of $9.3 million, partially offset by a decrease in the acquisition and development loan segment of $43.6 million. The decrease in the acquisition and development loan segment includes construction-to-permanent loans for which construction has been completed or there is a certificate of occupancy, which allows for the transfer of the loan classification to a permanent loan class secured by real estate. Overall loan growth, excluding SBA PPP forgiveness activity of $8.1 million, was $155.2 million or 7% for the year ended December 31, 2023 compared to 2022.

The loan portfolio at December 31, 2022 increased by $171.2 million to $2.2 billion from $2.0 billion at December 31, 2021 due primarily to commercial loan and residential mortgage production, which was offset by SBA PPP loan forgiveness activity of $176.1 million and reductions in installment and other loans in 2022. Overall loan growth, excluding SBA PPP loan forgiveness activity, was $349.0 million or 20% for the year ended December 31, 2022 compared to 2021.

In addition to monitoring the loan portfolio by loan class as noted above, the Company also monitors concentrations by segment. The Bank’s lending policy reports segment concentrations that exceed 20% of the Bank’s total risk-based capital ("RBC"). The following segments met this criterion at December 31, 2023:

Management regularly analyzes the commercial real estate portfolio, which includes the review of occupancy, cash flows, expenses and expiring leases, as well as the location of the real estate. At December 31, 2023, the Company had $226.5 million in loans related to office space, which had a weighted average loan-to-value ratio of 56% and a weighted average debt coverage ratio of 1.77x. Management believes that the office space portfolio is well-diversified and includes only limited exposure to properties located in major metropolitan markets (approximately 2% of the total commercial real estate loan balance as of December 31, 2023).

The following table presents expected maturities of loan classes by fixed rate or adjustable-rate categories at December 31, 2023.

50

51

The final maturity is used in the determination of maturity of acquisition and development loans that convert from construction to permanent status. Variable rate loans shown above include semi-fixed loans that contractually will adjust with prime or another variable rate index after the interest lock period, which may be up to 10 years. At December 31, 2023, these semi-fixed loans totaled $542.7 million.

Asset Quality

Risk Elements

The Company’s loan portfolio is subject to varying degrees of credit risk. Credit risk is managed through the Company's underwriting standards, on-going credit reviews, and monitoring of asset quality measures. Additionally, loan portfolio diversification, which limits exposure to a single industry or borrower, and collateral requirements also mitigate the Company's risk of credit loss.

The loan portfolio consists principally of loans to borrowers in south central Pennsylvania and the greater Baltimore, Maryland region. As the majority of loans are concentrated in these geographic regions, a substantial portion of the borrowers' ability to honor their obligations may be affected by the level of economic activity in the market areas.

Nonperforming assets include nonaccrual loans and foreclosed real estate. In addition, loan modifications to borrowers experiencing financial difficulty and loans past due 90 days or more and still accruing are also deemed to be risk assets. For all loan classes, the accrual of interest income on loans, including individually evaluated loans, ceases when principal or interest is past due 90 days or more and collateral is inadequate to cover principal and interest or immediately if, in the opinion of management, full collection is unlikely. Interest will continue to accrue on loans past due 90 days or more if the collateral is adequate to cover principal and interest, and the loan is in the process of collection. Interest accrued, but not collected, as of the date of placement on nonaccrual status, is generally reversed and charged against interest income, unless fully collateralized. Subsequent payments received are either applied to the outstanding principal balance or recorded as interest income, depending on management’s assessment of the ultimate collectability of principal. Loans are returned to accrual status, for all loan classes, when all the principal and interest amounts contractually due are brought current, the loans have performed in accordance with the contractual terms of the note for a reasonable period of time, generally six months, and the ultimate collectability of the total contractual principal and interest is reasonably assured. Past due status is based on contract terms of the loan.

Prior to the adoption of ASU No. 2022-02, Financial Instruments – Credit Losses (Topic 326): Troubled Debt Restructurings and Vintage Disclosures ("ASU 2022-02"), loans, the terms of which are modified, were classified as TDRs if a concession was granted for legal or economic reasons related to a borrower’s financial difficulties. Concessions granted under a TDR typically involved a temporary deferral of scheduled loan payments, an extension of a loan’s stated maturity date, temporary reduction in interest rates, or below market rates. If a modification occurred while the loan is on accruing status, it would continue to accrue interest under the modified terms. Nonaccrual TDRs were restored to accrual status if scheduled principal and interest payments, under the modified terms, were current for six months after modification, and the borrower continues to demonstrate its ability to meet the modified terms. TDRs were evaluated individually for impairment if they have been restructured during the most recent calendar year, or if they are not performing according to their modified terms.

ASU 2022-02 eliminated the TDR accounting model, and requires that the Company evaluate, based on the accounting for loan modifications, whether the borrower is experiencing financial difficulty, if the modification results in a more-than-insignificant direct change in the contractual cash flows and if the modified terms represent a new loan or a continuation of an existing loan, which the Company refers to these loans as "financial difficulty modifications" or "FDMs."

The following table presents the Company’s risk elements and relevant asset quality ratios at December 31 of each of the years set forth below.

(1) During 2023, the Company modified terms for two loans totaling $1.4 million, including one existing nonaccrual loan of $1.4 million, which met the FDM criteria in accordance with ASU 2022-02.

(2) Includes zero, $307 thousand, $214 thousand, $456 thousand and $2.0 million, respectively, of PCI loans at December 31, 2023, 2022, 2021, 2020 and 2019 in accordance with ASU 310-30. Upon adoption of the CECL standard, PCD loans were evaluated on an individual loan level and reported on an individual loan basis under ASU 310-20, Nonrefundable Fees and Other Assets. As of December 31, 2021, there was one loan for $891 thousand, which was in the process of collection and guaranteed by the SBA, and was subsequently collected during the first quarter of 2022.

Nonperforming assets include nonaccrual loans and foreclosed real estate. Risk assets, which include nonperforming assets, FDMs still accruing and loans past due 90 days or more and still accruing, totaled $25.6 million at December 31, 2023, an increase of $3.9 million from $21.7 million at December 31, 2022. Nonaccrual loans increased by $4.9 million from $20.6 million at December 31, 2022 to $25.5 million at December 31, 2023 due primarily to additions of $8.5 million, due primarily to two commercial real estate clients with loans totaling $4.3 million and one commercial and industrial client totaling $1.0 million, and transfers to non-accrual of $931 thousand due to the treatment of PCD loans at the individual asset level under CECL, partially offset by payments of $3.6 million, charge-offs of $909 thousand and loans returned to accrual status of $401 thousand.

The following table presents the amortized cost basis of nonaccrual loans, according to loan class, with and without reserves on individually evaluated loans at December 31, 2023, as compared to nonaccrual loans at December 31, 2022. At December 31, 2023, there was a specific reserve of $49 thousand on nonaccrual loans compared to no specific reserve on nonaccrual loans at December 31, 2022.

During the second quarter of 2023, the underlying project for a construction-to-permanent loan on nonaccrual status received its certificate of occupancy, which resulted in the recharacterization of the loan from commercial and land development to owner-occupied commercial real estate. The construction-to-permanent loan had a current outstanding balance of $13.4 million and $15.4 million at December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively.

The information presented above in the nonaccrual loan table and the collateral-dependent table are not required for periods prior to the adoption of CECL. The following table, which excludes accruing PCI loans, presents the most comparable required information at December 31, 2022, which summarizes impaired loans by segment and class, segregated by those for which a specific allowance was required and those for which a specific allowance was not required at December 31, 2022. The recorded investment in loans excludes accrued interest receivable. Related allowances established generally pertain to those loans in which loan forbearance agreements were in the process of being negotiated or updated appraisals were pending, and any partial charge-off will be recorded when final information is received.

The following table presents our exposure to relationships that are individually evaluated for impairment and the partial charge-offs taken to date and specific reserves established on those relationships at December 31, 2023 and 2022. Accruing PCI loans are excluded from loans individually analyzed for impairment at December 31, 2022. Prior to the adoption of CECL, acquired loans that met the criteria for impairment or nonaccrual of interest prior to the acquisition could be considered performing upon acquisition, regardless of whether the client is contractually delinquent, if the Company expected to fully collect the new carrying value (i.e., fair value) of the loans. As such, the Company may have no longer considered the loan to be nonperforming in accordance with guidance in ASC 310-30. Upon adoption of CECL, the Company elected to account for its PCD loans under ASC 310-20, which required that acquired loans be evaluated on an individual asset level. The election resulted in PCD loans totaling $931 thousand transferred to nonaccrual and included with loans individually evaluated under the CECL methodology.

The Company takes partial charge-offs on collateral-dependent loans when carrying value exceeds estimated fair value, as determined by the most recent appraisal adjusted for current (within the quarter) conditions, less costs to dispose. Specific reserves remain in place if updated appraisals are pending, and represent management’s estimate of potential loss.

Internal loan reviews are completed annually on all commercial relationships secured by commercial real estate with a committed loan balance in excess of $1.0 million, which review includes confirmation of risk rating by an independent credit officer. In addition, all commercial relationships greater than $500 thousand rated Substandard, Doubtful or Loss are reviewed and corresponding risk ratings are reaffirmed by the Bank's Problem Loan Committee, with subsequent reporting to the Management ERM Committee.

In its individual evaluated loan analysis, the Company determines the extent of any full or partial charge-offs that may be required, or any reserves that may be needed. The determination of the Company’s charge-offs or impairment reserve include an evaluation of the outstanding loan balance and the related collateral securing the credit. Through a combination of collateral securing the loans and partial charge-offs taken to date, the Company believes that it has adequately provided for the potential losses that it may incur on these relationships at December 31, 2023. However, over time, additional information may result in increased reserve allocations or, alternatively, it may be deemed that the reserve allocations exceed those that are needed.

Credit Risk Management

Allowance for Credit Losses

The Company maintains the ACL at a level deemed adequate by management for expected credit losses. As disclosed in Note 1, Summary of Significant Accounting Policies, and Note 4, Loans and Allowance for Credit Losses, on January 1, 2023 the Company implemented CECL and increased the ACL, previously the ALL, with a cumulative-effect adjustment to the ACL of $2.4 million. In addition, the Company recorded a cumulative-effect adjustment to the ACL for off-balance sheet exposures of $100 thousand. The Company’s ACL is calculated quarterly, with any adjustment recorded to the provision for credit losses in the consolidated statement of income. A comprehensive analysis of the ACL is performed by the Company on a quarterly basis. Management evaluates the adequacy of the ACL utilizing a defined methodology to determine if it properly addresses the current and expected risks in the loan portfolio, which considers the performance of borrowers and specific evaluation of individually evaluated loans, including historical loss experiences, trends in delinquencies, nonperforming loans and other risk assets, and the qualitative factors. Risk factors are continuously reviewed and adjusted, as needed, by management when conditions support a change. Management believes its approach properly addresses relevant accounting and bank regulatory guidance for loans both collectively and individually evaluated. The results of the comprehensive analysis, including recommended changes, are governed by the Company's Reserve Adequacy Committee, whose members were also a part of the Company's CECL Committee, and are subsequently presented to the Enterprise Risk Management Committee of the Board of Directors.

The ACL is evaluated based on a review of the collectability of loans in light of historical experience; the nature and volume of the loan portfolio; adverse situations that may affect a borrower’s ability to repay; estimated value of any underlying collateral; and prevailing economic conditions. This evaluation is inherently subjective as it requires estimates that are susceptible to significant revision as more information becomes available. A description of the methodology for establishing the allowance and provision for credit losses and related procedures in establishing the appropriate level of reserve is included in Note 4, Loans and Allowance for Credit Losses, to the Consolidated Financial Statements under Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data."

The following table presents the amortized cost basis of the loan portfolio, by year of origination, loan class, and credit quality, as of December 31, 2023. For residential and consumer loan classes, the Company also evaluates credit quality based on the aging status of the loan and payment activity. Residential mortgage and installment and other consumer loans are presented below based on payment performance: performing or nonperforming. During 2023, commercial and land development loans and 1-4 family residential construction loans totaling $109.3 million and $18.2 million, respectively, were recharacterized to a permanent amortizing loan secured by real estate class upon the completion of construction or receiving a certificate of occupancy.

57

58

The information presented in the table above is not required for periods prior to the adoption of CECL. The following table summarizes the Company’s loan portfolio ratings based on its internal risk rating system at December 31, 2022, which presents the most comparable required information. Prior to the adoption of CECL, PCD loans were classified as PCI loans and accounted for under ASC 310-30. In accordance with the CECL standard, management did not reassess whether PCI assets met the criteria of PCD assets as of the adoption date. At December 31, 2023, the amortized cost of the PCD loans was $8.6 million.

The Special Mention classification is intended to be a temporary classification reflective of loans that have potential weaknesses that may, if not monitored or corrected, weaken the asset or inadequately protect the Company’s position at some future date. Special mention loans represent an elevated risk, but their weakness does not yet justify a more severe, or classified, rating. These loans require inquiry by lenders on the cause of the potential weakness and, once analyzed, the loan classification may be downgraded to Substandard or, alternatively, could be upgraded to Pass.

Special mention loans decreased by $8.7 million from $32.9 million at December 31, 2022 to $24.2 million at December 31, 2023 due to repayments of $22.7 million partially offset by net downgrades of $14.0 million. The risk rating downgrades to Special Mention primarily consisted of 8 clients with loans spread across various commercial classes.

Non-IEL substandard loans are performing loans, which have characteristics that cause management concern over the ability of the borrower to perform under present loan repayment terms and which may result in the reporting of these loans as nonperforming, or individually evaluated, loans in the future. Generally, management feels that substandard loans that are currently performing and not considered impaired result in some doubt as to the borrower’s ability to continue to perform under the terms of the loan, and represent potential problem loans. Non-IEL substandard loans totaled $29.3 million at December 31, 2023, an increase of $15.5 million, compared to $13.8 million at December 31, 2022 due to net downgrades of $19.3 million, partially offset by repayments of $3.8 million. The risk rating downgrades to the non-IEL substandard category primarily consisted of four clients with loans spread across various commercial classes.

The Substandard-IEL category increased by $4.4 million from $21.3 million at December 31, 2022 to $25.7 million at December 31, 2023 due to net downgrades of $7.8 million partially offset by repayments of $3.3 million. The risk rating downgrades to the substandard-IEL category primarily consisted of three clients with loans spread across various commercial classes.

Despite the aforementioned downgrades, management does not believe that the other commercial loans in these categories have risk characteristics similar to those that led to the downgrades.

The following table summarizes activity in the ACL, including the impact of adopting CECL, for the year ended December 31, 2023, and the activity in the ALL for years ended December 31, 2022, 2021, 2020 and 2019.

The following table summarizes asset quality ratios for years ended December 31, 2023, 2022, 2021, 2020 and 2019.

61

The following table details net charge-offs (recoveries) to average loans outstanding by loan category for the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2022.

(1) Average loans exclude loans held for sale.

The ACL totaled $28.7 million at December 31, 2023, a $3.5 million increase from $25.2 million at December 31, 2022, resulting from a cumulative-effect adjustment from the adoption of CECL of $2.4 million, a provision for credit losses of $1.7 million and net charge-offs of $581 thousand for 2023. At December 31, 2023, the ACL as a percentage of the total loan portfolio was 1.25% compared to 1.17% at December 31, 2022 and 1.07% at December 31, 2021. The ACL increased in 2023 primarily due to the impact from implementing CECL, which required the transition from an incurred loss model based on historical loss experience to an expected credit loss model based on the contractual life of the loan.

In 2023 and 2022, the provision for credit losses was driven primarily by increases in commercial loans, excluding SBA PPP loan forgiveness activity, of $118.3 million and $299.9 million, respectively, in addition to the overall increase in expected loss rates under CECL. During 2023, the Delinquency and Classified Loan Trends qualitative factor was increased for the commercial & industrial and owner-occupied commercial real estate loan classes, which was based on a trend of increases in loans downgraded to the special mention or classified risk rating. All other qualitative factors were unchanged from levels established at the adoption of CECL. During 2022, qualitative factors were unchanged, except for a reduction in the National and Local Economic Conditions factor, that reduced the provision by $726 thousand. This factor had been increased previously for economic concerns in the commercial real estate portfolio associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. The additional allocation was removed during 2022 as these concerns had subsided.

For the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2022, gross recoveries of $524 thousand and $248 thousand, respectively, were credited to the ACL. These recoveries on previously charged-off relationships are the result of successful loan monitoring and workout solutions. Recoveries are difficult to predict, and any additional recoveries that the Company receives will be used to replenish the ACL. Recoveries favorably impact historical charge-off factors, and contribute to changes in the quantitative and qualitative factors used in our allowance adequacy analysis. However, as the loan portfolio continues to grow, future provisions for credit losses may result.

The Company takes partial charge-offs on collateral-dependent loans when carrying value exceeds estimated fair value, as determined by the most recent appraisal adjusted for current (within the quarter) conditions, less costs to dispose. Specific reserves remain in place if updated appraisals are pending, and represent management’s estimate of potential loss. In addition to the reserve allocations on individually evaluated loans noted above, six loans, with aggregate outstanding principal balances of $348 thousand, have had cumulative partial charge-offs to the ACL totaling $602 thousand at December 31, 2023. As updated appraisals were received on collateral-dependent loans, partial charge-offs were taken to the extent the loans’ principal balance exceeded their fair value.

The following table shows the allocation of the ACL by loan class, as well as the percent of each loan class in relation to the total loan balance at December 31, 2023, and the allocation of the ALL by loan class, as well as the percent of each loan class in relation to the total loan balance at December 31, 2022, 2021, 2020 and 2019.

63

The information presented in the table below is not required for periods subsequent to the adoption of CECL. The following table summarizes the ALL allocation for loans individually and collectively evaluated for impairment by loan segment at December 31, 2022. Accruing PCI loans are excluded from loans individually evaluated for impairment.

Management believes the allocation of the ACL among the various loan classes adequately reflects the life expected credit losses in each loan class and is based on the methodology outlined in Note 1, Summary of Significant Accounting Policies, and Note 4, Loans and Allowance for Credit Losses, to the Consolidated Financial Statements under Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data." Management re-evaluates and makes enhancements to its reserve methodology to better reflect the risks inherent in the different segments of the portfolio, particularly in light of increased charge-offs, with noticeable differences between the different loan classes. Management believes these enhancements to the ACL methodology improve the accuracy of quantifying the expected credit losses inherent in the portfolio. Management charges actual loan losses to the reserve and bases the provision for credit losses on its overall analysis.

Management believes the Company’s ACL is adequate based on currently available information. Future adjustments to the ACL and enhancements to the methodology may be necessary due to changes in economic conditions, regulatory guidance, or management’s assumptions as to future delinquencies or loss rates.

Deposits

Total deposits grew by $82.6 million, or 3%, to $2.6 billion at December 31, 2023 from $2.5 billion at December 31, 2022. During 2023, time deposits increased $155.5 million from $251.0 million at December 31, 2022 to $406.5 million at December 31, 2023 due to competitive pricing, including promotional offerings of up to 18-month terms. In addition, money market deposits and interest-bearing demand deposits increased by $36.5 million and $13.5 million, respectively, which increases were partially offset by decreases of $71.0 million in noninterest-bearing demand deposits and $51.9 million in savings deposits. The declines in noninterest-bearing deposit and savings deposits were primarily due to clients shifting to higher-yielding products within the Bank. During 2023, the Bank was successful at retaining many of those deposits and driving inflows from new clients as well. At December 31, 2023, deposits that are uninsured and not collateralized totaled $442.7 million, or 17%, of total deposits.

In 2022, total deposits increased by $11.3 million and remained consistent with a balance of $2.5 billion at December 31, 2022 and 2021. During the fourth quarter of 2022, the Bank announced that it had entered into a Purchase and Assumption Agreement providing for the sale of its Path Valley branch, including associated deposit liabilities, building and land. At December 31, 2022, deposits of approximately $31.3 million were expected to be conveyed in the branch sale. These deposits are reported within total deposits at cost and comprised of $23.5 million in interest-bearing deposits and $7.8 million in non-interest bearing deposits. The sale was completed on May 12, 2023. This sale included deposits of approximately $18.7 million comprised of $14.4 million in interest-bearing deposits and $4.3 million in noninterest-bearing deposits, which were sold at a premium of 6%. These deposits were reported at cost as deposits held for assumption in connection with sale of bank branch within total deposits in the consolidated balance sheets.

The following table presents average deposits for years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021.

Management evaluates its utilization of brokered deposits, taking into consideration the Bank's policies, the interest rate curve and regulatory views on non-core funding sources, and balances this funding source with its funding needs based on growth initiatives. The Company anticipates that loan growth will be funded through deposit generation by offering competitive rates, as well as reliance on FHLB borrowings. The Bank's brokered money market deposit balances were $20.1 million and $1.0 million at December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively. The Bank's brokered time deposit balances, including the average balance, remained at zero at December 31, 2023 and 2022.

The Company had time deposits that met or exceeded the FDIC insurance limit of $250,000 of $76.4 million and $36.5 million at December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively. At December 31, 2023, the scheduled maturities of time deposits that met or exceeded the FDIC insurance limit or otherwise uninsured were as follows:

Borrowings

In addition to deposits, the Company uses borrowing sources to meet liquidity needs and for temporary funding. Sources of short-term borrowings include the FHLB of Pittsburgh, federal funds purchased and the FRB discount window. Short-term borrowings also may include securities sold under agreements to repurchase with deposit clients, in which a client sweeps a portion of a deposit balance into a repurchase agreement, which is a secured borrowing with a pool of securities pledged against the balance.

The Company also utilizes long-term debt, consisting principally of FHLB fixed and amortizing advances, to fund its balance sheet with original maturities greater than one year. Prior to entering into long-term borrowings, the Company evaluates its funding needs, interest rate movements, the cost of options, and the availability of attractive structures.

FHLB advances and other borrowings increased by $31.4 million to $137.5 million at December 31, 2023 compared to $106.1 million at December 31, 2022. The increase in borrowings during 2023 included long-term fixed-rate advances from the FHLB totaling $40.0 million. With the continued strength in loan fundings and increased competition for deposits, the Bank elected to replace some of its overnight borrowings with lower cost term advances during the first quarter of 2023. The Bank tested its various sources of funding during 2023 to ensure accessibility.

In December 2018, the Company issued unsecured subordinated notes payable totaling $32.5 million, which mature on December 30, 2028, and the proceeds of which were designated for general corporate use, including funding of cash consideration for mergers and acquisitions. The subordinated notes had a fixed interest rate of 6.0% through December 30, 2023, which then converted to a variable rate, 90-day average fallback SOFR rate plus 3.16%, through maturity. At December 31, 2023, the interest rate on the subordinated debt was 8.78%.

For additional information about borrowings, refer to Note 13, Short-Term Borrowings, Note 14, Long-Term Debt, and Note 15, Subordinated Notes, to the Consolidated Financial Statements appearing in Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data."

Shareholders' Equity

Capital management in a regulated financial services industry must properly balance return on equity to its shareholders while maintaining sufficient levels of capital and related risk-based regulatory capital ratios to satisfy statutory regulatory requirements. The Company’s capital management strategies have been developed to provide attractive rates of returns to its shareholders, while maintaining a “well-capitalized” position of regulatory strength.

Shareholders’ equity totaled $265.1 million at December 31, 2023, an increase of $36.2 million, or 16%, from $228.9 million at December 31, 2022. The increase in 2023 was primarily attributable to net income of $35.7 million and other comprehensive income of $11.4 million, partially offset by dividends paid of $8.5 million, the cumulative-effect adjustment from the adoption of CECL that decreased retained earnings by $2.0 million and share-based compensation costs of $471 thousand. Other comprehensive income generated during 2023 was due to after-tax net unrealized gains on AFS securities and cash flow hedges of $10.9 million and $532 thousand, respectively, primarily caused by a decline in treasury rates and contracting credit spreads during 2023.

For the year ended December 31, 2023, total comprehensive income was $47.1 million, an increase of $69.4 million, from total comprehensive loss of $22.3 million for the same period in 2022. This increase was due to a reduction in unrealized losses on AFS securities and cash flow hedges, net of taxes, of $54.5 million of $1.3 million, respectively, and an increase in net income of $13.6 million.

At December 31, 2023, book value per common share was $24.98 per share compared to $21.45 per share at December 31, 2022. Tangible book value per share also increased from $19.47 per share at December 31, 2022 to $23.03 per share at December 31, 2023, as a result of the increase in shareholders' equity driven by earnings and other comprehensive income during 2023. See “Supplemental Reporting of Non-GAAP Measures.”

In September 2015, the Board of Directors authorized a stock repurchase program, which is more fully described in Item 5 under Issuer Purchases of Equity Securities. Subsequently on April 19, 2021, the Board of Directors authorized the additional future repurchase of up to 562,000 shares of its outstanding common stock. The maximum number of shares that may yet be purchased under the plan is 28,467 shares at December 31, 2023.

The following table includes additional information for shareholders’ equity for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021.

Capital Adequacy and Regulatory Matters

Capital management in a regulated financial services industry must properly balance return on equity to its shareholders while maintaining sufficient levels of capital and related risk-based regulatory capital ratios to satisfy statutory and regulatory requirements. The Company’s capital management strategies have been developed to provide attractive rates of returns to its shareholders, while maintaining a “well capitalized” position of regulatory strength.

The Parent Company and the Bank both have met all capital adequacy requirements to which they are subject at December 31, 2023 and 2022. At December 31, 2023 and 2022, the Parent Company and the Bank were considered well capitalized under applicable banking regulations.

The Company routinely evaluates its capital levels in light of its risk profile to assess its capital needs. In addition to the minimum capital ratio requirement and minimum capital ratio to be well capitalized presented in the tables in Note 17, we must maintain a capital conservation buffer as noted in Item 1 - Business under the topic Basel III Capital Rules. At December 31, 2023, the Parent Company's and the Bank's capital conservation buffer, based on the most restrictive capital ratio, was 4.8% and 4.8%, respectively, which are above the regulatory requirement of 2.50% at December 31, 2023.

Tables presenting the Parent Company’s and the Bank’s capital amounts and ratios at December 31, 2023 and 2022 are included in Note 17, Shareholders' Equity and Regulatory Capital, to the Consolidated Financial Statements appearing in Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data."

Liquidity and Rate Sensitivity

Liquidity. The primary function of asset/liability management is to ensure adequate liquidity and manage the Company’s sensitivity to changing interest rates. Liquidity management involves the ability to meet the cash flow requirements of clients who may be either depositors wanting to withdraw funds or borrowers needing assurance that sufficient funds will be available to meet their credit needs. The Company's primary sources of funds consist of deposit inflows, loan repayments, borrowings from the FHLB of Pittsburgh and maturities and prepayments of investment securities. While maturities and scheduled amortization of loans and securities are predictable sources of funds, deposit flows and mortgage prepayments are greatly influenced by general interest rates, economic conditions and competition.

The Company regularly adjusts its investments in liquid assets based upon its assessment of expected loan demand, expected deposit flows, yields available on interest-earning deposits and investment securities and the objectives of its asset/liability management policy. The Company's most liquid assets are cash and cash equivalents. The level of these assets depends on the Company's operating, financing, lending and investing activities during any given period.

At December 31, 2023, cash and cash equivalents totaled $65.2 million, compared with $60.8 million at December 31, 2022, which included net income of $35.7 million, increases in deposits and borrowings of $82.6 million and $23.9 million, respectively, and proceeds from investment securities maturities, calls and repayments, net of purchases of $11.4 million, offset primarily by the deployment of cash into higher yielding loans of $147.1 million. Unencumbered investment securities totaled $73.8 million and the Company had $17.4 million of investment securities pledged at the FRB Discount Window with no associated borrowings outstanding at December 31, 2023. The Company's maximum borrowing capacity from the FHLB of Pittsburgh was $1.1 billion, of which $138.1 million in advances and letters of credit were outstanding. The Company’s ability to borrow from the FHLB is dependent on having sufficient qualifying collateral, which generally consists of mortgage loans. In addition, the Company had $20.0 million in available unsecured lines of credit with other banks at December 31, 2023. The Bank tested its various sources of funding during 2023 to ensure accessibility.

At December 31, 2023, outstanding loan commitments totaled $892.0 million, which included $172.9 million in undisbursed loans, $337.5 million in unused home equity lines of credit, $357.1 million in commercial lines of credit, and $24.5 million in performance standby letters of credit. Time deposits due within one year after December 31, 2023 totaled $381.9 million, or 94% of time deposits, which includes both clients with longer-term time deposits nearing maturity and the more recent time deposit offerings with terms of 18 months or less. If these maturing deposits do not remain with the Company, it may be required to seek other sources of funds, including other time deposits and lines of credit. Due to current market conditions, the Company has paid higher rates on such deposits during 2023 than it paid in 2022. The Company has the ability to attract and retain deposits by adjusting the interest rates it offers.

The Company is a separate legal entity from the Bank and must provide for its own liquidity. In addition to its operating expenses, the Company is responsible for paying any dividends declared to its shareholders and interest on its borrowings. The Company also has repurchased shares of its common stock. The Company’s primary source of income is dividends received from the Bank. Restrictions on the Bank’s ability to dividend funds to the Company are described in Note 17, Shareholders' Equity and Regulatory Capital, to the Consolidated Financial Statements under Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data."

Interest Rate Sensitivity. Interest rate sensitivity management requires the maintenance of an appropriate balance between interest sensitive assets and liabilities. Management, through its asset/liability management process, attempts to manage the level of repricing and maturity mismatch so that fluctuations in net interest income are maintained within policy limits in current and expected market conditions. For further discussion, see Part II, Item 7A, "Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk."

Contractual Obligations

The Company enters into contractual obligations in the normal course of business to fund loan growth, for asset/liability management purposes, to meet required capital needs and for other corporate purposes. The following table presents significant fixed and determinable contractual obligations of principal by payment date at December 31, 2023.

Further discussion of the nature of each obligation is in the referenced Note to the Consolidated Financial Statements under Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data" referenced in the following table.

The contractual obligations table above does not include off-balance sheet commitments to extend credit that are detailed in the following section. These commitments generally have fixed expiration dates and many will expire without being drawn upon, therefore the total commitment does not necessarily represent future cash requirements and is excluded from the contractual obligations table.

Off-Balance Sheet Arrangements

The Company is party to financial instruments with off-balance sheet risk in the normal course of business to meet the financing needs of its clients. These financial instruments include commitments to extend credit and standby letters of credit.

The following table details significant commitments at December 31, 2023.

A discussion of the nature, business purpose, and guarantees that result from the Company’s off-balance sheet arrangements is included in Note 19, Financial Instruments with Off-Balance Sheet Risk, to the Consolidated Financial Statements under Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data."

Recently Adopted and Recently Issued Accounting Standards

Recently adopted and recently issued accounting standards are described in Note 1, Summary of Significant Accounting Policies, to the Consolidated Financial Statements under Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data."

Supplemental Reporting of Non-GAAP Measures

Management believes providing certain “non-GAAP” information will assist investors in their understanding of the effect on recent financial results from non-recurring charges.

As a result of prior acquisitions, the Company had intangible assets consisting of goodwill and core deposit and other intangible assets totaling $21.1 million and $21.8 million at December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively. During the year ended December 31, 2023, the Company incurred $1.1 million in merger-related expenses in connection with the proposed merger with Codorus Valley. Additionally, the Company incurred $3.2 million and $13.0 million in restructuring charges and a provision for legal settlement, respectively, during the year ended December 31, 2022.

Tangible book value per common share and the impact of the merger-related expenses, restructuring charge and legal settlement on net income and associated ratios, as used by the Company in this supplemental reporting presentation, are determined by methods other than in accordance with GAAP. While the Company's management believes this information is a useful supplement to the GAAP-based measures reported in Item 7, Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations, readers are cautioned that this non-GAAP disclosure has limitations as an analytical tool, should not be viewed as a substitute for financial measures determined in accordance with GAAP, and should not be considered in isolation or as a substitute for analysis of our results and financial condition as reported under GAAP, nor are such measures necessarily comparable to non-GAAP performance measures that may be presented by other companies. This supplemental presentation should not be construed as an inference that our future results will be unaffected by similar adjustments to be determined in accordance with GAAP.

The increase in tangible book value per share in 2023 compared to 2022 was primarily caused by increases in net income of $13.6 million and total comprehensive income of $11.4 million during 2023 compared to total comprehensive losses of $44.4 million during 2022. This increase was primarily due to a decrease in unrealized losses on AFS securities caused by a decline in Treasury rates.

The following tables present the computation of each non-GAAP based measure shown together with its most directly comparable GAAP-based measure.

(Dollars, except per share amounts, and shares in thousands)

(Dollars, except per share amounts, and shares in thousands)

69

Market risk comprises exposure to interest rate risk, foreign currency exchange rate risk, commodity price risk, and other relevant market rate or price risks. In the banking industry, a major risk exposure is changing interest rates. The primary objective of monitoring our interest rate sensitivity, or risk, is to provide management the tools necessary to manage the balance sheet to minimize adverse changes in net interest income as a result of changes in the direction and level of interest rates. FRB monetary control efforts, the effects of deregulation, economic uncertainty and legislative changes have been significant factors affecting the task of managing interest rate sensitivity positions in recent years.

Interest Rate Risk

Interest rate risk is the exposure to fluctuations in the Bank’s future earnings (earnings at risk) and value (value at risk) resulting from changes in interest rates. This exposure results from differences between the amounts of interest-earning assets and interest-bearing liabilities that reprice within a specified time period as a result of scheduled maturities, scheduled and unscheduled repayments, the propensity of borrowers and depositors to react to changes in their economic interests, and loan contractual interest rate changes.

We attempt to manage the level of repricing and maturity mismatch through our asset/liability management process so that fluctuations in net interest income are maintained within policy limits across a range of market conditions, while satisfying liquidity and capital requirements. Management recognizes that a certain amount of interest rate risk is inherent, appropriate and necessary to ensure the Bank’s profitability. Thus, the goal of interest rate risk management is to evaluate the amount of reward for taking risk and adjusting both the size and composition of the balance sheet relative to the level of reward available for taking risk.

Management endeavors to control the exposure to changes in interest rates by understanding, reviewing and making decisions based on its risk position. The Bank primarily uses its securities portfolio, FHLB advances, interest rate swaps and brokered deposits to manage its interest rate risk position. Additionally, pricing, promotion and product development activities are directed in an effort to emphasize the loan and deposit term or repricing characteristics that best meet current interest rate risk objectives.

We use simulation analysis to assess earnings at risk and net present value analysis to assess value at risk. These methods allow management to regularly monitor both the direction and magnitude of our interest rate risk exposure. These analyses require numerous assumptions including, but not limited to, changes in balance sheet mix, prepayment rates on loans and securities, cash flows and repricing of all financial instruments, changes in volumes and pricing, future shapes of the yield curve, relationship of market interest rates to each other (basis risk), credit spread and deposit sensitivity. Assumptions are based on management’s best estimates, but may not accurately reflect actual results under certain changes in interest rate due to the timing, magnitude and frequency of rate changes and changes in market conditions and management strategies, among other factors. However, the analyses are useful in quantifying risk and providing a relative gauge of our interest rate risk position over time.

Our asset/liability committee operates under management policies, approved by the Board of Directors, which define guidelines and limits on the level of risk. The committee meets regularly and reviews our interest rate risk position and monitors various liquidity ratios to ensure a satisfactory liquidity position. By utilizing our analyses, we can determine changes that may need to be made to the asset and liability mixes to mitigate the change in net interest income under various interest rate scenarios. Management continually evaluates the condition of the economy, the pattern of market interest rates and other economic data to inform the committee on the selection of investment securities. Regulatory authorities also monitor our interest rate risk position along with other liquidity ratios.

Net Interest Income Sensitivity

Simulation analysis evaluates the effect of upward and downward changes in market interest rates on future net interest income. The analysis involves changing the interest rates used in determining net interest income over the next twelve months. The resulting percentage change in net interest income in various rate scenarios is an indication of our short-term interest rate risk. The analysis assumes recent pricing trends in new loan and deposit volumes will continue while balances remain constant. Additional assumptions are applied to modify pricing under the various rate scenarios.

The simulation analysis results are presented in the table below. At December 31, 2023, the decrease in net interest income in the up 200 basis points rising interest rate scenario is the result of the assumption that funding costs will increase faster than the yields on interest earning assets. Results in the falling interest rate scenario project a decrease in net interest income as a result of long-term fixed rate funding added to the balance sheet in 2023. Additionally, in the model at December 31, 2023, funding pressure is not expected to abate within the first twelve months of a rates falling scenario, while the model at December 31, 2022 assumed faster repricing between those periods. The Bank is currently liability sensitive according to the model as interest bearing liabilities are expected to reprice faster than interest earning assets. If interest bearing liabilities reprice slower than modeled, the pressure on net interest income may be reduced.

Economic Value

Net present value analysis provides information on the risk inherent in the balance sheet that might not be considered in the simulation analysis due to the short time horizon used in that analysis. The net present value of the balance sheet incorporates the discounted present value of expected asset cash flows minus the discounted present value of expected liability cash flows. The analysis involves changing the interest rates used in determining the expected cash flows and in discounting the cash flows. The resulting percentage change in net present value in various rate scenarios is an indication of the longer-term repricing risk and options embedded in the balance sheet.

The results at December 31, 2023 and 2022 reflect the impact of the FOMC's interest rate increases in effect at the end of each period. Funding cost and repricing speed will continue to be a factor in the results of the model. The behavior of the business and retail clients also varies across the rate scenarios, which is reflected in the results. For the December 31, 2023 modeling, enhancements were implemented to provide a more granular analysis, which reflects the business and retail accounts experience different rate sensitivities and average lives. To improve comparability across periods, the Bank strives to follow best practices related to the assumption setting and maintains the size and mix of the period end balance sheet; thus, the results do not reflect actions management may take through the normal course of business that would impact results.

Further discussion related to the quantitative and qualitative disclosures about market risk is included under the heading of Liquidity and Rate Sensitivity in Item 7, Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations.

Based on the evaluation required by Exchange Act Rules 13a-15(b) and 15d-15(b), the Company's management, including the Chief Executive Officer and Chief Financial Officer, conducted an evaluation of the effectiveness of our disclosure controls and procedures, as defined in Exchange Act Rules 13a-15(e) and 15d-15(e), at December 31, 2023. Based on that evaluation, our Chief Executive Officer and Chief Financial Officer concluded that our disclosure controls and procedures were effective at December 31, 2023. There have been no changes in internal control over financial reporting that have materially affected, or are reasonably likely to materially affect, our internal control over financial reporting during the fourth quarter of 2023.

Management's Report on Internal Controls Over Financial Reporting is included in Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data." The effectiveness of the Company's internal control over financial reporting at December 31, 2023 has been audited by Crowe LLP, an independent registered public accounting firm, as stated in the Report of Independent Registered Public Accounting Firm appearing in Part II, Item 8, "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data."